Solved problems 1

SOLVED PROBLEMS


1. Consider the full-duplex network shown in figure 1.1. A 3-dB directional couplers are used. If
the directional couplers each have 1.5 dB of excess loss and all connectors (one at each
directional coupler port, one at the transmitter, and one at the receiver) have 0.8 dB of loss. The
fiber has 4-dB loss. Compute the total loss from transmitter to receiver.



T T

Connector
1
Connector


Directional coupler Directional coupler
R R

Figure 1.1 full-duplex communications system. T, transmitter; R, receiver.
The unused ports are also shown.



Solution:

= 3 + 1.5 = 4.5 dB.
The total loss = 2 (4.5) + 6 0.8 + 4 = 17.8 dB.




2. A four-port directional coupler has a 4:1 splitting ratio and an excess loss equal to 2 dB. The
couplers directionality is 40 dB.
(a) What fraction of the input power goes to each of the ports?
(b) Compute the throughput loss and tap loss.
(c) Compute the loss due to radiation, scattering, and absorption in the coupler.


Solved problems 2

l


Port 1 Port 2

P
1
P
2


Fibers or wave-guides


Port 4 Port 3

P
4
(Coupling length) P
3




Figure 1.2 a four ports directional coupler.

Solution

(a)

2 dB

0.631

= 0.631 and

= 0.631
For port2:

0.505
For port 3:

0.126

For port 4:

40 dB

0.0001

(b)

2.967 dB

2.967 +2 = 4.967 dB.

8.996 dB.

8.996 +2 = 10.996 dB.
(c)

= 2 dB.

Solved problems 3

3. A five-terminal tee network is structured like one shown in figure 1.3. The tee couplers are like
the one shown in figure 1.4. Assume ideal 3-dB couplers, ideal fibers, and lossless connectors.
(a) Draw the entire network.
(b) Compute the transmission loss to each of the receivers when terminal 1 is the transmitter.
Terminals

2 3 4

Transmitter connector Connector Transmitter
Terminal1 splice Terminal 5

Receiver Receiver

Directional coupler Tee coupler Bus fiber (trunk fiber) Directional coupler

Figure 1.3 Tee network interconnecting N terminals.

1 2 Connector splice
Fiber bus
Directional coupler

4 3



2 3
Directional coupler

1 4 connector
T R
Transmitter Receiver
Figure 1.4 tee coupler using two directional couplers.
Solved problems 4

If we transmit from terminal 1 to the other terminals
( )

for terminal N

for 1

Coupler description

(dB)

(dB)
Splitting ratio
3 dB 3 3 1:1


For terminal 2 : 2

2 dB.
For terminal 3: 3

3 dB.
For terminal 4: 4 dB.
For terminal 5: ( ) 15 dB.


4. Repeat problem 3 when the directional couplers each have 1.5 dB of excess loss, all connectors
have 0.8 dB of loss, the fiber loss is 35 dB/km, there is 100 m between terminals, and splices
produce a 0.2 dB loss. The number of connectors and/or splices is up to you to specify.

3+1.5 = 4.5 dB.

3+1.5 = 4.5 dB.
If we transmit from terminal 1 to the other terminals
( )

( )

( )

for terminal N

( )

( )


for 1

For terminal 2 : 2 dB.
For terminal 3: 3 30.2dB.
For terminal 4: 4 dB.
For terminal 5: ( ) 45.3 dB.


5. A star network like that in figure 1.5. Connects five terminals. The excess loss of the star
coupler is 2 dB, connector losses are 0.8 dB, splice losses are 0.2 dB, and the fiber loss is 35
dB/km. Terminals 1, 2, 3 and 4 are 100 m from the star coupler. Terminal 5 is 20 m from the
star coupler. Include all the connectors and splices you think you need, and note them on your
sketch.
(a) Sketch the network.
(b) If terminal 1 transmits, compute the total transmission loss to each of the receivers.
Solved problems 5

Transmitters

1 2 5 3 4

Connector


Splice


Star coupler



Splice
Connector
1 2 5 3 4
Receivers
Figure 1.5 star network

Solution
For 1 5,

+ 2

2L

+ 2 + 2 0.8+ 2 0.2 +2 0.1 35 = 18 dB.

For N,

+

0.120

+ 2 + 2 0.8+ 0.2 + 0.120 35 = 15 dB.

Solved problems 6

6. This problem compares different simple add/drop multiplexer architectures.

(a) First consider the fiber Bragg grating-based add/drop element shown in figure 1.6. Suppose
a 5% tap is used to couple the added signal into the output, and the grating induces a loss of
0.5 dB for the transmitted signals and no loss for the reflected signal. Assume the circulator
has a loss of 1 dB per pass. Carefully compute the loss seen by a channel that is dropped, a
channel that is added, and a channel that is passed through the device. Suppose the input
power channel is 15 dBm. At what power should the add channel be transmitted so that
the powers on all the channels at the output are the same?


1

3

4




2

1 2 Coupler


Fiber Bragg grating
3



1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4




2

2

Drop Add

(b)

Figure 1.6 Optical add/drop elements based on fiber Bragg Gratings.


(b) Suppose you had to realize an add/drop multiplexer that drops and adds four wavelengths.
One possible way to do this is to cascade four add/drop elements of the type shown in figure
1.6 in series. In this case, compute the best-case and worst-case loss seen by the channel that
is dropped, a channel that is added, and a channel that is passed through the device.


(c) Another way to realize a four-channel add/drop multiplexer is shown in figure 1.7. Repeat
the preceding exercise for this architecture. Assume that the losses are as shown in the
figure. Which of the two would prefer from a loss perspective?

Solved problems 7







1

2

3

4
2
1

2

3

4

Coupler
1

2

3

4


1 10%
Fiber Bragg gratings
3


Splitter 6 dB 6 dB Combiner



Filters 1 dB
1

2

3

4



1

2

3

4



Figure 1.7 A four channel add/drop multiplexer architecture.


(d) Assume that fiber gratings cost $500 each, circulators $3000 each, filters $ 1000 each, and
splitters, combiners, and couplers $ 100 each. Which of the two preceding architectures
would you prefer from a cost point of view?


7. An alternative to the star couplers is to construct cascading 3 dB couplers to obtain a NN
device formed by using constructed 2 couplers as the like shown in figure 1.11, where N is
an even integer. Show that the total losses increase logarithmically with N.

The number of 3-dB couplers needed to construct an N N cascaded star coupler is

If the fraction of power traversing each 3-dB coupler element is F
T
, with F
T
1, a fraction
(1 F
T
) of power is lost in each 2 coupler.
Solved problems 8

The excess loss

Total loss = splitting loss excess loss

)


1

1

2

8


2

3

4

5

6



7

8

1

2

8


Figure 1.11 Example of an 88 star coupler formed by interconnecting twelve 2 couplers.

Example: consider a commercial available 32 single mode coupler made from a cascade of 3-dB
fused-fiber 2 couplers, where 5% of the power is lost in each element. Determine:

(i) The excess loss
(ii) The splitting loss
(iii) Total loss.

Directional coupler
The fused biconically tapered directional coupler, sketched in figure 1.12, has been designed to provide
low-loss couplers with a range of splitting ratios. The couplings to ports 2 and 3 are given by

()

()
Where is the coupling coefficient (given in radians per meter) between the two waveguides and L
is the length of the fiber over which interaction exists. All the power appears at port 3 when the length
of the interaction region is

()
, where the coupling length is

.
Solved problems 9

L
Cladding
1 Core 2
Cladding
4 Core 3

Figure 1.12 Fused bi-conically tapered directional coupler.

Assuming that the coupler is lossless, the expression for the power P
3
coupled from the first fiber to the
second fiber over axial distanced z is
P
3
P
1

()
Where is the coupling coefficient describing the interaction between the fields in the two fibers. By
conservation of power, for identical-core fibers we have
P
2
P
1
P
3
P
1
[1

() ] P
1

().
This shows that the phase of the driven fiber always lags

behind the phase of the driving fiber.

1.0

0.8 P
2
/ P
1


0.6
0.4

0.2 P
3
/P
1

0
Coupler draws length (mm)
Figure 1.13 normalized coupled powers P
2
/ P
1
and P
3
/P
1
as function of coupler draw length for a 1300
nm power level P
1
launched into fiber 1.

N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

p
o
w
e
r

Solved problems 10

Thus, when the power is launched into fiber 1, at z 0 the phase in fiber 2 lags

behind that in fiber

1. This lagging phase relationship continues for increasing z, until at a distance that satisfies

,
all of the power has been transferred from fiber 1 to fiber 2. Now fiber 2 becomes the driving fiber, so
that for

the phase in fiber 1 lags behind that in fiber 2, and so on. As a result of this
phase relation, the 2 coupler is a directional coupler. That is no energy can be coupled into a wave
traveling backward in the negative-z direction in the driven waveguide.

1.0

0.8 P
3
/ P
1


0.6
0.4

0.2 P
2
/P
1

0
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 1.14 illustrating the dependence on wavelength of coupled powers in the completed 15 mm
long coupler.

8. Consider the unidirectional device for de-multiplexing and multiplexing shown in figure 1.15.
Suppose that a 10% tap is used to couple the added signal into the output, and the grating
induces a loss of 0.5 dB for the transmitted signals and no loss for the reflected signal. Assume
the circulator has a loss of 1 dB per pass. Carefully compute the loss seen by:

(i) channels that are dropped

for
2

for
3

N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

p
o
w
e
r

Solved problems 11


1

2

3

4
Circulator
1

2

3

4


2

3

1 2 Coupler
Fiber Bragg gratings

3


1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4


Splitter 6 dB 6 dB Combiner


3

2

Filters 1 dB

2

3


Figure 1.15 Optical add/drop elements based on fiber Bragg Gratings and circulator.


(ii) channels that are added

for
2
,
3

(iii) Channels that is passed through the device.

For
1
,
4

( )

()



(iv) Suppose the input power channel is 20 dBm. At what power should the add channels be
transmitted so that the powers on all the channels at the output are the same?

P
O
P
in

20 dBm

P
in
P
O
P
add

P
O
P
add

P
in
P
O

Solved problems 12

Important notes:



4

3


1

2

3

4

1

2

4


Fiber Bragg gratings 3-ports circulator





1

2

4


1

2

4



(a) This design does not work for wavelengths
1
,
2
, and
4
.



1

2

4





3

3


1

2

3

4

1

2

4


Fiber Bragg gratings 3-ports circulator






1

2

4


(b) This design will work will for all wavelengths.

Figure 1.16 illustrates the OADM system diagram.

Solved problems 13

OPTICAL ADD/DROP MULTIPLEXERS

Optical add/drop multiplexers (OADMs) provide a cost-effective means for handling pass-
through traffic in both metro and long-haul networks. Figure 1.17 illustrates a WDM network.


Node A Node B Node C
OADM



4

3


2

1


OLT OLT transponder
Add/drop

(a)


Node A Node B Node C










Add/drop

(b)

Figure 1.17 an example of a three-node linear network that illustrates the role of optical add/drop
multiplexers. Three wavelengths are needed between nodes A and C, and one wavelength each
between nodes A and B and between nodes B and C. (a) A solution using point-to-point WDM
systems. (b) A solution using an optical add/drop multiplexer at node B.


Why the transponders are needed in the solution of figure 1.17 (a) to handle the pass-through
traffic?
The power level of a signal coming into node B from node A might be also so low that it
cannot be passed through for another hop to node C.
Solved problems 14

The power of the signals added at a node must ideally be equal to the power of the signals
passing through.
OADMs are inflexible, static elements and do not allow in-service selection under software
control of what channels are dropped and passed through.











OADM ARCHITECTURES

Several architectures have been proposed for building OADMs. These architectures typically use one
or more of the multiplexers/filters. Most practical OADMs use either fiber Bragg gratings, dielectric
thin-film filter, or array wave-guide gratings.

Different OADM architectures that are commercially implemented

Parallel architecture

An arbitrary subset of channels can be dropped and the remaining passed through. The loss
through the OADM is fixed, independent of how many channels are dropped and added.
Since all channels are de-multiplexed and multiplexed at all the OADMs, each light path passes
through many filters before reaching its destination.



w

w



1
,
2
, ..,
w

1
,
2
, ,
w






1


2

2


1

1



Figure 1.18 Parallel architecture, where all the wavelengths are separated and multiplexed back.
WDM networks provide circuit-switched end-to-end optical channels, or light paths, between
network nodes to their users, or clients. A light path consists of an optical channel, or
wavelength, between two network nodes that is routed through multiple intermediate nodes.
Intermediate nodes may switch and convert wavelengths. These networks may be thought of as
wavelength-routing networks.

Solved problems 15

Advances In Reconfigurable Add Drop Multiplexer ROADM Technologies


Large amounts of information traveling on multiple wavelengths around an optical network need to be
switched at the network nodes. Information arriving at a node is forwarded to its final destination via
the best possible path, which is determined by such factors as distance, cost, and the reliability of
specific routes. The conventional way to switch the information is to convert the input fiber optical
signal to an electrical signal, perform the switching in the electrical domain, then convert the electrical
signal back to an optical signal that goes down the desired output fiber. This optical-electrical-optical
O-E-O conversion uses systems that are expensive, bulky, and are bit-rate/protocol dependent. The
different optical component technologies that have been developed for use in ROADM subsystems
include MEMS, liquid crystals (liquid crystal devices LCD and liquid crystal on silicon LCoS
technologies), and monolithic and hybrid planar light wave circuits PLC based on silica on silicon and
polymer on silicon platforms.

ROADMs allow avoiding the unnecessary O-E-O conversion, enabling O-O-O systems that use optical
switching, which has significant advantages for carriers and service providers. ROADMs route the
optical signals directly, and are bit-rate/protocol transparent, so future upgrades of bit-rate or protocol
can be accommodated without the need to upgrade the switch.

A ROADM network element typically includes:

Transponder
ROADM subsystem
Optical service channel
Optical power monitoring
Amplifiers(Pre-amp &Post-amp)
Dispersion compensation module

Type II ROADM
A type II ROADM offers colorless Add/Drop ports. Three generations of subsystems are based on the
wavelength blocker WB and small switch array SSA.

Wavelength blocker WB

The WB-based subsystem has a broadcast and select architecture and is based on free-space
optics, which can use MEMS or LCD actuation. It is mostly used in long-haul networks, and
typically has 80 channels with a channel spacing of 50 GHz. The ports are made colorless
through the use of tunable filters at the drop ports and tunable lasers at the add ports, without
having an impact on the through path. Figure 1.19 shows generation-I WB.

Solved problems 16

Wavelength blocker



Splitter Splitter OCM


Drop Add

1 or 1 N or M
Splitter Combiner
Tunable filters
Tunable lasers
Receivers


Figure 1.19 architectures of Gen 1 type II ROADM subsystem based on WB.
OCM: optical channel monitor.


Small Switch Array SSA.

Figure 1.20 shows generation-I type II ROADM subsystem based on SSA.

1 DCE OCM 1 DCE OCM





Demux Mux


Drop Add


N M OXC M N OXC

Receivers Transmitters


Figure 1.20 architectures of Gen 1 type II ROADM subsystem based on SSA.
Solved problems 17

The SSA-based PLC solution is smaller and more cost-effective. It has M colorless Add/Drop
ports (M can be up to N, the total number of channels), which is achieved through the use of
M N switches. Today, N is typically 8, 16, 32, or 40 channels, and M is typically 4 or 8 ports.
This subsystem occupies 1 slot. This solution is typically used in metro networks, and has a
channel spacing of 100 GHz.


Wavelength Selective Switch WSS
A 1N WSS can be used either for degree-N connectivity as in ring-to-ring inter-connect, or
for adding/dropping channels as s ROADM with 1Express port and N Drop ports. A WSS
allows any number of channels to exit any port. When used as a ROADM, the Add
functionality is implemented separately, typically through the use of a Multiplexer and a tap.
For a 1N WSS with n channels, n 1N switches are needed. A connectivity node of degree-4
where two fiber-pair rings interconnect, requiring one 1 WSS per fiber, and a total of 4 1
WSSs for the node. A fiber-pair ring Add/Drop node needing N Drop ports requires one
1N WSSs per fiber, so two 1N WSSs for the node. Figure 1.21 shows schematically a
1 WSS with 8 Drop ports.

Mux
Any number of s Out

n 1N switches

1
Any number of s

Any number of s
In

1
,
2
,,
n
Any number of s

Any number of s

n

Any number of s

Any number of s

Any number of s

Any number of s

Mux


Figure 1.21 functional diagram of n-channel 1 WSS used at an Add/Drop node, providing one
Express port and 8 Drop ports.
Solved problems 18

Next Generation ROADM Network (www.enablence.com)

The ROADMs are typically defined by the number of degrees, or directions, of switching they can
perform. The first generation of ROADMs could only switch wavelengths in two degrees, typically
called East and West as illustrates in figure 1.22. The second generation of ROADMs could switch in
four degrees, North, South, East, and West as illustrated in figure 1.23.
However, with these first two generations of ROADM, typically based on wavelength selective
switching WSS, automated switching in the optical layer can only take place at the intermediate nodes
across a network link.


The selected pass through Wavelengths









AWG AWG AWG AWG


RX TX TX RX


Figure 1.22 illustrates the architecture diagram of two degrees ROADM.


Wavelengths remain in the optical layer while passing through intermediate nodes on the network,
operators do not have to deploy transponders or convert between optical and electrical signals. These
ROADMs are also more elegant than previous architectures, which used fixed optical add/drop
multiplexers with external optical patch panels and cabling.

The next generation ROADM allows for the traffic to be remotely switched at the wavelength level.
The physical characteristics of this ROADM are defined as:

Colorless
Directionless
Contention less

W
S
S
W
S
S

S
p
l
i
t
t
e
r
S
p
l
i
t
t
e
r

Solved problems 19

W
S
S
W
S
S

S
p
l
i
t
t
e
r

S
p
l
i
t
t
e
r






RX TX
Splitter WSS


TX AWG AWG TX

AWG AWG







AWG AWG

RX RX


Splitter WSS
RX AWG AWG TX





Figure 1.23 the typical architecture of a four-degree ROADM. With this design, the add/drop points at
the end points of the network must still be physically assigned or reassigned by technicians.








Solved problems 20

Optical path switch

1


1


2

2





I/O customer optical signal
Pass- through traffic add/drop traffic,
Only signal exists at east direction


Optical path switch Link failure

1


1


2


2





I/O customer optical signal
Pass- through traffic add/drop traffic,
Only signal exists at west direction

Figure 1.16 illustrating the operation of the ROADM with protection. (a) Working light path in
operating mode. (b) Switching the working light path to the protected route, protected
mode.
Solved problems 21

Optical path switch

1


1


2

2







Pass- through traffic I/O low-priority I/O working
signal signal

Optical path switch

1


1


2

2







Pass- through traffic No signal I/O protected
signal

Figure 1.17 illustrating the operation of the ROADM with protection. (a) Working light path in
operating mode. (b) Switching the working light path to the protected route, protected mode.