Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Fundamental of Radio Communications

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already
in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or
disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without
the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi
Aramco.

Chapter : Communications For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: CTR10101 J.S. Phillips on 873-0228
Engineering Encyclopedia Communications
Fundamental of Radio Communications

CONTENTS PAGES

OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF ANALOG

COMMUNICATIONS: APPLICATIONS TO SAUDI ARAMCO
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS......................................................................... 1
Modulation and Demodulation.................................................................... 2
Bandwidth ................................................................................................... 3
Analog Systems Used by Saudi Aramco..................................................... 3
OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS:
APPLICATIONS TO SAUDI ARAMCO COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEMS .............................................................................................................. 4
Bit Rate........................................................................................................ 4
Baud Rate .................................................................................................... 4
Encoding...................................................................................................... 4
Decoding ..................................................................................................... 4
Transmission Rate ....................................................................................... 5
Digital Systems Used by Saudi Aramco...................................................... 5
ELECTRICAL NOISE AND INTERFERENCE: CAUSES AND
EFFECTS................................................................................................................ 6
Saudi Aramco Examples of Noise and Interference.................................... 6
Co-Channel Radio Frequency Interference ................................................. 6
Intermodulation Interference ....................................................................... 7
GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................... 9

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OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS:

APPLICATIONS TO SAUDI ARAMCO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Electronic communications systems transfer information from one point to another by

electronic means. The earliest forms of electronic communications transferred
information using a code such as morse code. These early systems transferred
information, but they were slow and difficult to use. Newer technology which allowed
voice communications, was an improvement. Later improvements allowed the transfer of
voice, video, and large amounts of data. It is important to remember that nearly all
improvements to communication systems have evolved around the need to transfer
information efficiently.

Radio communications refer to the transfer of information through free space. The signals
that travel through free space are in the form of electromagnetic energy. The frequency
spectrum for electromagnetic energy ranges from 30 Hz up to 1022 Hz. Figure 1 shows the
electromagnetic frequency spectrum. While these numbers represent the entire
electromagnetic spectrum, the radio frequency spectrum runs from 30 kHz to 300 GHz.
Saudi Aramco uses the frequencies between approximately 100 kHz and 10 GHZ for a
wide range of communications services. More information on the frequency spectrum is
presented in later modules.

Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum

Figure 1

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Electronic communications can be subdivided into the following two major areas:

• Analog communications.
• Digital communications.

As the name implies, analog communications systems transfer analog signals from one
point to another. An analog signal is a signal that has a continuously variable level and
can have an infinite number of amplitude levels between the minimum and maximum
amplitude range of the signal. Analog communications systems may have digital circuitry
in the system, but the information that they transfer from one point to another is an analog
signal.

There are three major characteristics that are used to describe specific analog signals;
amplitude, frequency, and phase. Amplitude refers to the magnitude (voltage) of the wave
and is usually measured in volts. Frequency refers to the number of times a wave repeats
itself and is usually measured in Hertz (Hz). Phase refers to the difference in time
between two waves of the same frequency. Phase is measured in degrees or radians.

Analog signals are ideally suited for voice communications. Because human speech,
music, and most sounds are analog. The range of frequencies that the human ear can hear
is between 20 Hz and 20 KHz. This range of frequencies is called the audio range, and is
sometimes referred to as the audio frequencies.

While it is possible to send audio frequencies directly through space, it is not practical.
For one thing, all transmissions would be at the same frequency. This would cause
different communications systems to interfere with each other since there would be only
one channel for communications. Also, the low audio frequencies would need antennas
that could be kilometers long and would need very high power levels.

Modulation and Demodulation

For the reasons stated previously, radio communications are usually performed at
frequencies higher than the audio range. To produce these higher frequencies, a relatively
low-frequency intelligence signal must be superimposed onto a relatively high-frequency
signal for transmission. In electronic communications systems, the source information
(intelligence signal) modulates a single-frequency sinusoidal signal. Modulate simply
means to vary or change. The source information is called the modulating signal, the
signal that is acted upon (modulated) is called the carrier, and the resultant signal is called
the modulated wave. In essence, the source information is transported through the system
on the carrier.

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In analog communications systems, modulation is the process of changing some property

of an analog carrier in relation to the original source information, and then transmitting the
modulated carrier. Conversely, demodulation is the process of converting the changes in
the analog carrier back to the original source information.

The total or composite information signal that modulates the main carrier is called
baseband. The baseband is converted from its original frequency band to a band more
suitable for transmission through the communications system. Baseband signals are up-
converted at the transmitter, and down-converted at the receiver.

Frequency translation is the process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to

another location in the total frequency spectrum. Analog signals can be amplitude
modulated or angle modulated. Amplitude modulation involves varying the amplitude of
a carrier signal in relation to the modulating signal. Angle modulation involves varying
the frequency or phase of a carrier in relation to the modulating signal.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the total range of frequencies that a communications signal occupies. If the
information signal consisted of only one frequency, such as a steady tone, the transmitted
signal would only have to be one frequency. In reality, most voice or music signals
contain a range of frequencies. As a result, the transmitted signal must also carry these
frequencies. Therefore the transmitted signal will actually contain a range of frequencies,
called the bandwidth. As an example, a typical speech signal processed by telephone
circuitry contains the frequencies between 300 Hz and 3400 Hz. Therefore the total
bandwidth of this speech signal is 3100 Hz. Actual transmitted radio signals need a wider
bandwidth for reasons that are discussed in later modules.

Analog Systems Used by Saudi Aramco

Saudi Aramco uses analog systems for most voice communications. Some examples of
analog systems include the following:

• Broadcast FM Radio.
• Broadcast TV (Audio and Video).
• Mobile/Marine Radio Systems.
• Aviation Radio Systems.
• Paging Systems.
• Analog Microwave Radio Systems.
• Satellite Radio Systems.

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OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS:

APPLICATIONS TO SAUDI ARAMCO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

A digital communications system is a system that transfers digital information from one
point to another. Digital systems actually use analog carriers, but these carriers are
modulated with digital information. Digital signals have only two discrete levels. This
differs from analog signals that have an infinite number of levels. The bit is the smallest
unit of information in a digital system. Since the binary system is used, a 1 or 0 are the
only two possible states. In a circuit, a 1 is usually a condition of high voltage and a 0 is
usually a condition of low voltage.

Bit Rate

Bit rate is the number of bits of data transmitted in one second. The units for bit rate are
bits per second (BPS). Typically, bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital signal at
the input of a digital modulator.

Baud Rate

Baud rate is another unit of signal speed. Baud rate refers to the number of discrete
signalling elements that occur in one second. Baud rate is typically used to describe the
output of a modulator. Since baud rate refers to the rate of change of the binary signal, it
is independent of modulator frequency. Bit rate can be compared directly with frequency
but baud rate cannot unless more information is known.

Encoding

Digital communications systems can transfer data information, voice information, or any
other form of information. Data information is usually already in digital form, but other
types of information in analog form must be converted to digital form. This process is
called encoding. Analog to digital (A/D) converters convert analog signal to digital
signals that carry the same information. A number of encoding schemes exist, including
pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse position
modulation (PPM), and pulse code modulation (PCM). PCM is the most common form of
encoding in Saudi Aramco communication systems, and will be discussed in detail in later
modules.

Decoding

Once a digital signal arrives at its destination, it must be converted back into its original
form. This process is called decoding. Digital to Analog (D/A) converters produce an
analog output from the digitally encoded input.

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Transmission Rate

The term “transmission rate” refers to speed at which the digital information is transferred.
Transmission rate can be in bits per second or baud. It is important to know which rate is
being used since they may not be the same.

Digital Systems Used by Saudi Aramco

Saudi Aramco uses digital systems for both data and voice communications. Some
examples of digital systems include the following:

• Digital 6 GHz microwave radio systems.

• Fiber optic transmission systems.
• Local Area Networks
• Digital Paging Systems

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ELECTRICAL NOISE AND INTERFERENCE: CAUSES AND EFFECTS

For information on the causes and effects of electrical noise, refer to the supplemental
text, “Electronic Communications Systems” by Wayne Tomasi. Read the section on
electrical noise, pages 18 through 29. This section covers the following topics:

• Correlated Noise.
• Uncorrelated Noise.
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio.
• Noise Figure.

Saudi Aramco Examples of Noise and Interference

Saudi Aramco radio systems are not immune to interference. Saudi Aramco radio systems
are subject to both intersystem and intrasystem interference. Intersystem interference is
interference between more than one system while intrasystem interference is interference
within one system. The most severe sources of interference for Saudi Aramco radio
system fall into one of the following categories:

• Co-channel Radio Frequency Interference

• Intermodulation Interference

Co-Channel Radio Frequency Interference

Co-channel radio frequency interference (RFI) occurs when separate transmitters operate
at the same frequency. Co-channel RFI can be either intersystem or intrasystem. Co-
channel RFI is usually avoided through proper frequency coordination: however, co-
channel RFI can result from frequency reuse or broadcasts from non-Aramco sources.

An example of intrasystem co-channel RFI that resulted from frequency reuse occurred on
the Industrial Security radio system Several divisions within the system operated at the
same frequencies. For example, the Northern Remote Division and the Dhahran Division
both operated at 408/413.875 MHz (BTx/BRx). Mobiles in each division continually
heard transmissions from the other division. The interference was eliminated when Saudi
Aramco retrofitted all equipment with tone coded squelch.

Intersystem co-channel RFI occurred with both the Water Interjection radio system and
the Aviation Air to Ground radio system. Qatar interfered with the 159.400 MHz Water
Injection channel in the Qurrayah area. A transmitter in Qatar regularly broke squelch on
Saudi Aramco’s base station receiver at the Qurrayah Communications Site. The problem
was eliminated when directional antennas, oriented away from Qatar, were installed at the
Qurrayah Communications Site.

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Interference with the Aviation Air-go-Ground radio system occurred in both the Damman
area and along the East/West Pipeline. A non Saudi Aramco cordless phone user in the
Damman area operated on the Saudi Aramco air-go-ground frequency of 138.225 MHz.
Non Saudi Aramco radio transmitters operating in an extended subscriber configuration
along the East/West Pipeline interfered with pilot communications. In each case the
interference was eliminated by convincing the non Saudi Aramco users to change
transmission frequencies.

Intermodulation Interference

Intermodulation interference is the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies

when two or more frequencies are amplified in a non-linear device. Saudi Aramco can
experience intermodulation distortion when two or more transmitters transmit
simultaneously.

In the Abqaiq area, a paging transmitter and an extended subscriber transmitter interfere
with an IMTS channel. The paging transmitter operates at 464.300 MHz and the extended
subscriber transmitter operates at 467.200 MHz. Interference occurs when the second
harmonic of the paging transmitter (928.6 MHz) and the extended subscriber transmitter
operating frequency both are received by the IMTS receiver. The difference frequency,
equal to 461.400 MHz, will be generated within the front end of the IMTS receiver.
461.400 MHz is the operating frequency of the IMTS channel 2. The IMTS receiver can
not discriminate between the signal produced by the intermodulation and the desired
receive signal; therefore, the receiver receives both signals and the intermodulation signal
will interfere with the desired signal.

Figure 2 lists the receivers within Saudi Aramco that are subject to intermodulation
interference. For each receiver, the interference is due to the difference frequency
produced from the mixing of the second harmonic of Frequency A and the fundamental
frequency of Frequency B.

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Receives Subject to Intermodulation Interface

Figure 2

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GLOSSARY

A/D Analog to digital.

amplitude The magnitude of variation in a changing quantity from its zero

value. Usually measured in volts for electrical signals.

amplitude The process of varying the amplitude of a carrier signal in

relation to
modulation the modulating signal.

analog A signal that is continuous in nature with respect to time and has
continuous values between maximum and minimum.

angle modulation The process of varying the frequency or phase of a carrier signal
in relation to the modulating signal.

bandwidth The total range of frequencies occupied by a signal.

baud A unit of signalling speed. It represents the number of discrete

conditions or elements per second and is usually referenced to
the output of a modulator.

BPS Bits per second.

correlated noise Unwanted electrical energy that is present as a direct result of the
signal.

D/A Digital to analog.

demodulation The process of recovering the information from a modulated

signal.

digital A signal whose amplitude variations with respect to time are not
continuous but have discrete levels.

frequency The number of recurrences of a periodic phenomenon in a period

of time. Usually measured in Hertz for electrical signals.

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modulation The process of varying some characteristic of a carrier wave in

accordance with the information to be transmitted.

original That from which a copy, reproduction, or translation is made.

PAM Pulse amplitude modulation.

PCM Pulse code modulation.

phase The angular relationship between voltage and current in an
alternating current waveform.

PPM Pulse position modulation.

PWM Pulse width modulation.

uncorrelated noise Noise that is present whether or not a signal is present.

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