Measurements and Instrumentations Till First Order System

Course Course
Name of Course L T P Credit

Type Code
E/SO ECE201 Measurements and Instrumentation 3 0 0 9
N Topics to be Covered Lecture

o. Hours
1 Basic Concepts of Measurement systems, units and standards of 2
measurements, error, accuracy and precision, types, statistical
analysis,
2 Static characteristics 5
3 Dynamic characteristics, 7
4 Moving coil, moving iron meters and multimeters 7
5 Bridge Measurements: 5
Wheatstone, Kelvin, Maxwell, Hay, etc.
4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 2

N Topics to be Covered Lecture
o. Hours
6 Electronic Measurements and Digital Instruments: 6
ADC, DAC, Oscilloscopes: Digital storage oscilloscope, delayed
time base oscilloscopes, analog storage oscilloscope, sampling
oscilloscope etc.
Frequency counters – measurement of frequency and time
interval, extension of frequency range etc.
7 Transducers and Data Acquisition Systems: 6
Sensors and Transducers, Classification, transducer for
measurement of temperature, displacement, pressure, force,
torque etc.
8 Signal Conditioning and analyzing 2
Text Books
Albert D. Helfrick and William D. Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation and
Measurement Techniques, Pearson, 2016 India.
Bernard M Oliver and John M Cage, Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2008 India
Introduction
☼ The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the

result of comparison between the quantity and a predefined
standard.
☼ Since two quantities are compared the result of the comparison can be
expressed in term of some numbers, which is the integral multiple of
the standard to represent equivalency for representing the unknown
quantity.
☼ In fact, measurement is the process by which one can convert
physical parameters to meaningful numbers.
☼ This had been explicitly addressed by the great physicist Lord Kelvin as
–
“When you can measure what you are speaking about
and can express it in numbers, you know something
about it; when you cannot express it in numbers, your
knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind”

Introduction
☼ The advancement of Science and Technology is dependent upon a

parallel progress in measurement techniques.
☼ This is because; with the advancement of Science and Technology new
phenomena are discovered that are needed to be measured, without which the
phenomena do not carry any significance.
☼ There are two major functions in all branches of engineering :
I) Design of equipment and processes and
II) Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes
Both these function require measurement.
☼ Now, in order that the result of the measurement are meaningful, there are
two basic requirement:
I) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately
defined and should be commonly accepted.
II) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable
The first requirement is fulfilled by common agreement between several
countries, about the primary units of measurement of physical quantities such as
mass, length, and time. The commonly accepted definition of these unit
‘standard’ are maintained by the International Bureau of weights and
Measures situated at France.
Introduction
☼ Classification of the standards are given as follows.

 International standards
 Primary standards International Standard :
 Secondary standards Defined by international agreement and
 Working standards maintained by the International Bureau
of Weight and Measure in France
Secondary Standard:
maintained by different Primary Standard: maintained
institutes and are calibrated by individual countries with
using the primary standards almost equivalent accuracies of
International standards. These
Working Standard : are periodically calibrated with
are calibrated using the secondary the international standards. In
standard. The working standard INDIA the primary standard are
are used in the laboratory for maintained by the National
measuring different quantities. Physical Laboratory
Introduction
The working standard for electrical/electronics laboratory are precise

resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage sources and current sources, which
can be used for comparison purpose when measuring electrical quantities.
 A working Standard Resistor is usually constructed of Manganin (an
alloy of copper, manganese and nickel) or similar materials which has a
very low temperature coefficient. These resistors are available with
values ranging from 0.01Ω to 1MΩ with typical accuracy of ±0.01% to
±0.1% (one may remember that the resistors we used in our laboratory
are usually having tolerances or accuracies in the range 5% to 10%.
 A Working Standard Capacitor is typically air dielectric type or
constructed of silvered mica. Available capacitor values are in the range
0.001µF to 1 µF with typical accuracies 0.02%.
 Standard Inductors are available in values ranging from 100μH to 10H
with typical accuracies of 0.1%.
 Calibrators provide standard voltage and current for calibrating
voltmeter and ammeters.
Note: The working standard are having least accuracies compared to
the other standards.
Introduction
Q. What are the different kinds of measuring standards?

A. International standards, Primary standards, Secondary standards, and
Working standards
Q. What are primary standards?
A. The standards that are maintained by individual countries with almost
equivalent accuracies of International standards are called primary
standards.
Q. Which organization/institute maintains the primary standards in
India?
A. National Physical Laboratory
Q. Working standard Resistors are usually made of _________.
A. Manganin (an alloy of copper, manganese and nickel).
Q. Working Standard capacitors are usually having a dielectric
_________.
A. Silvered mica
Introduction
Now before the discussion about the apparatus of measurement let us

talk about the Methods of Measurement.
There are two types of methods followed for measurement –
 Direct Methods and  Indirect Methods
Direct Methods: In these methods, the unknown quantity (also called the
measurand) is directly compared against a standard. the result is expressed
as a numerical number. Direct methods are quite common for the
measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time.
Indirect Methods: There are situation (or rather most common situation
in sophisticated scientific measurement) when direct measurement can not
be applied. For example, weight of a loaded truck need to be measured.
This is impractical to measure such weight using a balance. Instead, an
indirect method of measurement is often adopted.
Indirect method of measurement usually converts the measurand
to other physical /electrical quantity, which is then measured. This
secondary physical/electrical quantity is calibrated and related to the
primary measurement and thus the primary measurand is measured.
Introduction
Although most (if not all) of the apparatus for measurement using indirect
method have the following three element/ parts in common,
(i) a detector,
(ii) an intermediate transfer device,
(iii) an indicator/ recorder/ storage device
They can be registered in the following three major ways based on their
operating principle.
(i) Mechanical Instrument (ii) Electrical Instrument and (iii)
Electronic Instrument
Mechanical Instrument: These instruments are very reliable for static and
stable conditions. But they suffer from a very major disadvantage, which is
because they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic
and transient conditions. This is due to the fact that these instruments have
moving parts that are rigid, heavy, and bulky; and consequently have a large
mass. Mass presents inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot
follow the rapid changes, which are involved in dynamic measurements.
Thus, it would be virtually impossible to measure a 50 Hz oscillation with
these kinds of instruments. Contd……
Introduction
Electrical Instrument:
 Electrical method of indicating output are more rapid than
mechanical methods.
 However, it is unfortunate that an electrical system normally depends
upon a mechanical meter movement as indicating device. This
mechanical movement has some inertia and therefore these
instruments have a limited time response.
 For example, some electrical recorders can give full scale response in
0.2 s.
 The majority of industrial recorders have responses of 0.5 to 24 s.
 Some galvanometers can follow 50 Hz variation, but even these are
too slow for present day requirements of fast measurement.
Contd……
Introduction
Electronic Instrument:
These days most of the scientific and industrial measurements require very
Fast responses. The mechanical and electrical instruments and systems cannot
cope up with these requirements.
 The necessity to step-up response time and also the detection of dynamic
changes in certain parameters, which require monitoring time of the order
of ms and many a times micro second, have led to the design of today's
electronic instrument and their associated circuitry.
 These Instrument mostly require semiconductor devices.
 Since in electronic devices the only movement involved is that of electrons,
the response time is extremely small on account of very small inertia of
electrons.
 For example, a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable of following
dynamic and transient changes of the order of a few ns .
In summary, it may be stated that in general electronic instruments have -
❶ A higher sensitivity ❷ A faster response time ❸ A greater flexibility
❹ Lower weight ❺ Lower power consumption and ❻ A higher degree of
reliability than their mechanical or purely electrical counterparts.
Introduction
Performance of a measurement system is evaluated based on their

① Static Characteristics ② Dynamic Characteristics
Static Characteristics:-
Some applications involves the measurement of quantities that are either
constant or varies slowly with time. Under these Circumstances, it is
possible to define some set of criteria that gives a meaningful description of
quality of measurement without interfering with the dynamic descriptions
of the system that involve differential equations. These criteria are called
Static Characteristics.
Dynamic Characteristics:-
Conversely, many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying
quantities. Therefore, for such cases, we must examine the dynamic
relations that exist between the output and input. These relation are
normally described using differential equations. The Performance criteria
based on these type of time dependent differential equation are termed as
Dynamic Characteristics.
Introduction
Q. What are the primary methods of measurement?

A. Direct Methods and Indirect Method
Q. Give an example of direct method of measurements.
A. Weight Balance
Q. What are the main parts of the apparatus for measurement using
indirect method ?
A. (i) detector, (ii) an intermediate transfer device, and (iii) an indicator/
recorder/ storage device
Q. What are the drawbacks of Mechanical Instruments?
A. The moving parts of mechanical instruments are rigid, heavy, and
bulky, and hence their dynamic responses are slow.
Q. What are the drawbacks of Electrical Instruments?
A. Electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter
movement as the indicating device. This mechanical movement has some
inertia, which limits their time response.
Static Characteristics

Static
Characteristics
All the static performance of an equipment are characterized by a process of

static calibration with the known standards that is either (1) a primary
standard, (2) a secondary standard or (3) an equipment with known
accuracy.
However, these standards should obviously have an higher accuracy than
that required for the particular application of the equipment. The result of
this calibration is expressed in terms of the following static performance
characteristics or simply static characteristics.
√ Accuracy, √ Sensitivity, √ Reproducibility, √ Repeatability, √ Precision

√ Resolution, √ Significant Figures, √ Drift, √ Static error, √ Dead Zone
As error is unavoidable in most of the instrumentation system, most of the

static characteristics such as accuracy, precision, resolution etc., are related
to errors. However some static characteristics describes about working
procedures and limitations of the system.
Here, I choose to describe this performance characteristics then we
would discuss about the others.
Static
Characteristics
All of the measuring instruments those are using indirect method for
measurement have one intermediate block for converting one physical
quantity (measurand) to another.
This secondary physical quantity what we see as an output is related to the
primary quantity in a linear (ideally) or nonlinear way over the whole
range of measurement. The following graphs show such two typical
relationships.

Static
Characteristics
It can be seen from the figure that the Linear

output quantity varies linearly with the polynomial
input quantity throughout the whole range.
Is this graph really linear?
linear function f(x) should satisfy Additivity:

f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y)
Therefore, the sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change in the
output quantity to the change in the input quantity at a certain value
of the input.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
It is same for the whole range of input in the above graph and is equal to the
slope of the transfer characteristics graph.
However, this is an ideal situation and is rarely obtained in an
instrument for a long span of inputs.
Static
Characteristics
The most common situation can be attributed through the following figure.
It shows that the sensitivity is not
the same at different input values
due to the nonlinear relationship
in the transfer characteristics.
However, the curve can be
considered as linear for a small
span of inputs.
The sensitivity is different for
different range of inputs.
𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
Although linear relationship is recommended/ preferred in measuring

instrument for getting same sensitivity in the whole span of inputs,
equipment having non-linear transfer characteristics can not be
stated as inaccurate. Rather, they are equally accurate as the linear one.
Static
Characteristics
Q. A mercury thermometer has a capillary tube of 0.25 mm diameter. If the

bulb and the capillary tube are made of a zero expansion material, what
volume must it have if a sensitivity of 2.5 mm/°C is desired? Assume that
the operating temperature is 20°C and the co-efficient of volumetric
expansion of mercury is 0.181 × 10−3 /°𝐶.
A. Let, 𝑳𝒄 = length (in mm) of the capillary tube which would be occupied
by mercury contained in the bulb when it is not heated;
∆𝑳𝒄 = Increment (in mm) in length of the mercury mark in the capillary
tube when heated with ∆𝜽 temperature;
Ac is the Area (mm2) of capillary tube; α (= 0.181 × 10−3 /°𝐶) is volumetric
expansion of mercury, Sensitivity 𝒔 = ∆𝑳𝒄 ∆𝜽 = 2.5 mm/°C
Now, Ac(Lc+ΔLc)=Ac(Lc+αLcΔθ)
𝟏 ΔLc 𝟏 𝟏
Or Lc= = × 𝒔 = × 𝟐. 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝒎
𝜶 Δθ 𝟎.𝟏𝟖𝟏×𝟏𝟎 −𝟑 𝟎.𝟏𝟖𝟏×𝟏𝟎 −𝟑
So, the volume of the bulb = Ac × Lc = 𝝅 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟐 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 =

𝟔𝟕𝟕. 𝟒 𝒎𝒎𝟑 .

Static
Characteristics
If we extend our previous discussion a bit further and recapitulate that not
all transfer/calibration curve are linear then we need to quantify the
nonlinearity in an instrument.
As stated earlier that nonlinearity does not essentially implicate
inaccuracy. A nonlinear equipment can be used well for measurement if it
is properly calibrated.
Now, let us take a typical
situation, as shown in the
adjacent figure, where the curve
Output
line in the figure shows the actual

calibration/transfer curve for the
instrument. This is obviously an
nonlinear relationship.
However, most of the time it is
necessary that measurement
system should have linear
Input
characteristics.
Static
Characteristics
For example, the resistance used in a potentiometer should vary linearly

with displacement of the sliding contact in order that the displacement is
directly proportional to the sliding contact voltage. In these case, any
departure from linearity is stated to be resulting in an error in the read out
system.
L1< L2> L3
In such a case, Independent Linearity
Full Scale Deflection

is defined in term of a reference line
Output
which closely follows the input L3
output relationship. Now the
Independent non linearity or simply
non linearity is defined in terms of this
Independent linearity and the actual L2
L1
calibration curve as follows –
Input
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 In some definitions
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 this is taken as the
𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 − 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ‘actual reading’’
Static
Characteristics
Q. A 10𝑘 variable resistance has a nonlinearity of 0.1% and the movement

of contact arm is spanned to 320°.
a) Determine the maximum position deviation (in degrees) and the
resistance deviation (in ohm).
b) If this instrument is used as a potentiometer with a linear scale of 0 to
1. 6 𝑉, determine the maximum voltage error.
A.
(a) From the above equation of nonlinearity-
Maximum displacement deviation = Nonlinearity × Full scale deflection
= 0.1 × 320°/100
= 0.32°
Similarly, the maximum resistance deviation= 0.1 × 10𝑘/100 = 10Ω
(b) A displacement of corresponds to displacement of voltage 1.6 𝑉.
Therefore, Maximum deviation of voltage from the linear scale = 0.1 ×
1.6𝑣/100 = 1.6 𝑚𝑣. So, 1.6 𝑚𝑣 is the maximum absolute voltage error.

Introduction
Q. Name a few metric for defining static characteristics.

A. Accuracy, Sensitivity, Reproducibility, Repeatability, Precision,
Resolution, etc.
Q. A linear function should show __________ and _________ property.
A. Additivity and Homogenecity
Q. Define Static Sensitivity
A. 𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
Q. Define nonlinearity
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
A. 𝑵𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍−𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Q. Can an equipment having non-linear transfer characteristics be
stated as incorrect instrument?
A. No

Static
Characteristics
Hysteresis is a phenomenon, which depicts

Output
different output effects when loading and
unloading the characteristics graph
through variance in the input.
Hysteresis is a very common phenomenon
in every domain of engineering as well as
Input
measurement instruments, whether it is of
mechanical or electrical or any other system.
 Hysteresis is non coincidence of
loading and unloading curves.
A spring loaded or electromagnetic system often sees the phenomenon of
hysteresis due to residual elongation/abridgment of spring or residual
magnetism.
The hysteresis result in requirement of an input threshold of an
equipment. Similarly a hysteresis prone equipment would be expected to
be operating with a dead zone.
Static
Characteristics
Output A DEAD ZONE is defined as the largest

change in input quantity for which there
Can is no output of the instrument is
behave observed.
like Dead
Zone if A typical example of an instrument
Input
the having dead zone is-
reverse  An instrument which have internal
motion is friction and a moving part that needs
restricted to overcome the friction force.
Dead Zone
The applied force for displacement need to
be higher than the friction force to start the
Displacement
movement. So, the equipment would
undergo through the dead zone (the
instrument would seem to be dead)
before the threshold force which is
required for the equipment to respond.
4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen
Force 26
Static
Characteristics
Reproducibility is the degree of closeness with which a given value

may be measured at a different time. It may be specified in term of
units for a given period of time.
Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift, i.e.,
the measured input does not vary over time. Drift may be classified into
three categories as – Zero Drift, Span Drift, and Zonal Drift
Output
Output
Output
Input Input Input
Calibration may gradually shift due to slippage or undue warming up of electronic
circuits.
In Zero Drift, the expected value of the normal
characteristics at zero input differs, keeping the
sensitivity same.
Static
Characteristics
Repeatability is the closeness of the agreement between the results of

successive measurements of the same measurand carried out under the
same conditions of measurement.
It actually relates with the possible randomness of a system.
Repeatability is defined as the variation in scale reading and is random
in nature. The below graph depicts the concept of Repeatability.
Although Reproducibility and

Repeatability seems to be similar, the
Output
Repeatability is not related with

time.
A measurement may be said to

be repeatable when the variation is
smaller than a pre-determined
Input acceptance criterion.

Static
Characteristics
Q. What is Hysteresis?
A. Hysteresis is the non coincidence of loading and unloading curves.
Q. What is dead zone?
A. Dead Zone is defined as the largest change in input quantity for which
there is no output of the instrument is observed.
Q. How many types of Drifts are commonly observed?
A. Zero Drift, Span Drift, and Zonal Drift
Q. Define repeatability.
A. Repeatability is the closeness of the agreement between the results of
successive measurements of the same measurand carried out under the
same conditions of measurement.
Q. What is the major difference between Reproducibility and
Repeatability
A. Where Reproducibility involves time of measurement, the Repeatability
don’t.
Static
Characteristics
 From the above concepts, we understood that error is omnipresent

in instrument and electronic instruments are not exception.
 In order to make sure that these instruments are provable, we
need to identify the types of errors present in such systems.
 Also, if possible, the method of measurement should be done in such
a way that these errors are eliminated or at least minimized.
 Moreover, the method and the equipment should indicate the span or
range of the possible error.
 As has been discussed earlier, a measurement(indirect method)
system has at least three section, i.e.,(i) a detector (ii) an
intermediate transfer device/measuring instrument (iii) a
indicator/recorder, all of which have some equipment errors.
 Now, apart from the equipment error, the whole system (including the
measurement methodology) can undergo some errors of the
following types, i.e., (i) Gross Error (ii) Systematic Error (iii)
Random Error

Static
Characteristics
Gross errors are basically human introduced errors, which are due
to monotonicity, fatigue, or sometimes carelessness of the operator.
 The figure shows an analog type multimeter. This
type of multimeter shows different type of scales
in almost same place, using the same indicator.
Different scales are for different range of inputs.
If one chooses a range 3 then the scale should be
read within the indication scale 0 – 3. However ,if
one chooses the maximum scale 10, the scale
should be read from the top portion/range.
 Now, one common gross error in these types of
instrument is misreading or misinterpretation of
the scale/range .
 The other common human error occurs here
when the indicator is in between two marks,
which we normally estimate from our perception.
The gross error can be avoided by –
 A cautious and methodological observation
 Taking multiple reading (preferable by multiple operation)
Static
Characteristics
Systematic error is introduced by the measuring system itself.

In some situations, the process of integration of the measuring equipment
to the whole measuring system introduces an overall error to the
measurement. These types of errors are termed as the systematic error.
Systematic error (also called systematic bias) is consistent, repeatable
error associated with faulty equipment or a flawed experiment design.
These errors are usually caused by measuring instruments that
are incorrectly calibrated or are used incorrectly. However, they can
creep into your experiment from many sources, including:-
A worn out instrument. For example, a plastic tape measure becomes

slightly stretched over the years, resulting in measurements that are slightly
too high
An incorrectly calibrated instrument, like a scale that doesn’t read zero
when nothing is on it.
A person consistently takes an incorrect measurement. For example,
they might think the 3/4″ mark on a ruler is the 2/3″ mark.

Static
Characteristics
The systematic error can be categorized in-

❶ Instrumental error ❷ Environmental error ❸ Observational error
Instrumental Error:
It can occur due to the inherent shortcoming or loading effect of the
instrument.
An example of the error due to the inherent shortcoming is-
• If the spring (used to produce controlling torque) of a permanent
magnet equipment becomes weak, the instrument would always read
higher than the previously calibrated values.
The example of error caused by the loading effect is as follows –
• A DC voltmeter will always show higher error when the resistance
(across which the meter has been connected for obtaining
measurement) is higher and becomes comparable to the internal
resistance of the Volt-meter.

Static
Characteristics
Environmental error:
These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device
including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument.
These may be due the effects of temperature, pressure, humidity,
dust, vibrations, or of external magnetic or electrostatic fields.
Example:-
• Measuring length with a metal ruler would give different result when
measured in cold than the hot weather.
• Measuring the mass of a sample in an analytical balance may produce
different values at different times due to variation in the air current.
Observational Error:-
There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer
of a analog voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an
error on account of PARALLAX will be incurred unless the line of vision of
the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize PARALLAX error,
highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales
Static
Characteristics
Q. What are the different types of errors?

A. (i) Gross Error (ii) Systematic Error (iii) Random Error.
Q. What is Gross Error?
A. Gross errors are basically human introduced errors, which are due to
monotonicity, fatigue, or sometimes carelessness of the operator.
Q. What is systematic error?
A. The overall error introduced in the process of integration of the measuring
equipment to the whole measuring system is called Systematic ERROR
Q. What are the major classifications of Systematic errors?
A. The systematic error can be categorized in-
❶ Instrumental error ❷ Environmental error ❸ Observational error
Q. Where we left the last class?

A. We were about to discuss the Random (or Residual) Errors.

Static
Characteristics
Random (Residual) Error:-

 It has been consistently found that experimental results show
variation from one reading to another, even after all systematic
errors have been accounted for.
 These errors are due to a multitude of small factors, which change or
fluctuate from one measurement to another and are due surely to
chance.
 The quantity being measured is affected by many happenings
throughout the universe. We are aware of and account for some of
the factors influencing the measurement, but about the rest we are
unaware or can not avoid.
 The happenings or disturbance about which we are unaware are
lumped together called Random (or Residual) Errors.
 Since, these errors remain even after the systematic errors have been
taken care of, we call these errors as Residual (Random) Errors.

Static
Characteristics
Statistical Analysis and Estimation of Errors:-

 While gross errors can be eliminated by cautious observation of
multiple operators, Random Errors only can be estimated and
minimized by statistical means.
 As discussed above, the random errors are caused by a large number
of small effects, each of one are variable.
 These variables may be additive in some cases, and subtractive in
others, in their effect on the quantity being measured.
 In most measurements with plenty number of observations, the
positive and negative effects are nearly equal and hence the average
error is almost zero.
 Actually we obtain the data as scattered arround a central value
and so, the statistical laws or Probability can be well applied to
these data to obtain an estimation about the probable error.
Static
Characteristics
Method of collecting experimental data for statistical estimation is

an crucial step.
Majority two types of experimental tests are performed for this purpose.
These are –
 Multisample Test
In this test, repeated measurement of a given quantity are done
using different test conditions such as – employing different
similar instruments, and by employing different observers.(It
may be noted that the statistical means are only applied to the
multisample data).
 Single Sample Test
In this case, a single measurement (or succession of
measurements) done under identical conditions excepting for
time.
Static
Characteristics
There are numerous ways to statistically represent a data. A few of which

are –
❶ Histogram, ❷ Arithmetic Mean, ❸ Deviation (Average
Deviation, Standard Deviation), ❹ Variance ❺ Normal or
Gaussian distribution of errors.
Histogram:-
When a number of multisample observations are taken experimentally,
there is a scatter of the data about some central value. One method of
presenting this type of test result is Histogram.
A histogram is a frequency distribution graph, where the X-axis
represents the value (or range of values) those have been
obtained during experiment and the Y-axis represents the
number of experiments in which values within this range is
obtained.
The following slide presents an example of outcome from a multisample
test and corresponding histogram.
Static
Characteristics
Test Reading
Here, 100 length measurement were performed
Length No. of Reading
99.7 1
on a sample with a scale having minimal
99.8 4 incremental step 0.1 (i.e., the length data would
99.9 12 be obtained like…99.9 or 100 or 100.1…).The
100.0 19 frequency of measurement that have produced a
100.1 10 particular length value is shown in the adjacent
100.2 3 column of the table.
100.3 1
20
Number of Observations
Now, the figure shows the histogram of
the above data. The histogram depicts 15
that the data follows a hypothetically
Gaussian distribution graph, which is 10
expected to be common in most data.
This Gaussian graph gets smoother and
more accurate with higher number of 5
observation and smaller incremental
scale. 0
presented by Mrinal Sen

Length 40
4 February 2021
Static
Characteristics
Now, as we have seen, most of the practical data cluster around a

central value, which is 100.0 in the last example. Thus, the deviation
from this central value is expected to be cancelling out by taking the
Arithmetic Mean of the experimental outcome.
Arithmetic mean :-
𝒏 where n is the number of
𝟏 𝒙𝒊
𝒙= observations and 𝑥𝑖 is the
𝒏 outcome of ith experiment.
Random errors most often
gets minimized/nullified
with the Arithmetic Mean
of a large number of Length (L) No. of Reading (R) L*R
experiment outcomes. 99.7 1 99.7
99.8 4 399.2
Let us take the last example: 99.9 12 1198.8
Here the arithmetic mean 100 19 1900
is 99.992, which is not the 100.1 10 1001
exact central value, but 100.2 3 300.6
100.3 1 100.3
reduces the error of a
measurement sufficiently.
Static
Characteristics
Deviation is another statistical tool used for estimating the error.

It is the departure of the observed readings from the arithmetic
mean of the group of readings.
Deviation of the data xi among n number of observation is represented
as- 𝒏
𝟏 𝒙𝒊
𝒅𝒊 = 𝒙𝒊 − 𝒙 = 𝒙𝒊 −
𝒏
𝒏
Therefore, it is obvious that – 𝟏 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟎
Average Deviation:-
The average deviation is an representation of precision (or consistency)
in data. It is the arithmetic mean of the absolute values of deviation of
each data in the set. That is,
𝒏
𝟏𝒅𝒊
Average deviation – 𝑫=
𝒏

Static
Characteristics
In the case of random errors or in the case where distribution of the data
is approximately uniform in both sides of the mean, the average deviation
is not able to provide reasonable estimate of the error in the
measurement data. Instead, the root mean square (rms) of the deviation
is used to estimate the error. It is termed as –
However, one should
𝒏
𝟏 remember that the formula
𝟐
Standard Deviation: 𝝈 = 𝒅𝒊 can ideally estimate the error
𝒏
𝟏 for infinite number of
samples.
Practically, no sample is infinite
However ,yet if the number of samples is greater
than or equal to 20,we can consider the sample size 𝒏
𝟏
is sufficiently large to resemble reasonable the 𝒔= 𝒅𝒊 𝟐
infinite case. Hence, in those cases we consider the 𝒏−𝟏
𝟏
above formula for calculating the standard
deviation. On the other hand, if the sample size
is <20,we redefine the standard deviation as –
Static
Characteristics
Q. What is Random Error?

A. The happenings or disturbance about which we are unaware are lumped
together called Random (or Residual) Errors.
Q. Can the random errors from a system be eliminated?
A. No. Random errors can only be estimated and minimized by statistical
means.
Q. What is histogram?
A. A histogram is a frequency distribution graph, where the X-axis represents
the value (or range of values) those have been obtained during experiment and
the Y-axis represents the number of experiments in which values within this
range is obtained.
Q. What is the formula of standard deviation if the sample size is <20 ?

𝟏 𝒏 𝟐
A. 𝝈= 𝟏 𝒅𝒊
𝒏−𝟏
where n is the number of observations and 𝑥𝑖 is the outcome of ith
experiment.
Static
Characteristics
Normal or Gaussian Distribution of Errors:- In most cases the Random Errors

follows normal or Gaussian distribution function as follows.
𝟏 𝒙−𝑿 𝟐 𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒚= 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − = 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝟐
𝝈 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝈𝟐 𝝈 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝈
Where, y is the number of readings at any deviation 𝑥 − 𝑋 (i.e., y is the
probability of occurance of the value x), and 𝜎 is the standard deviation.
A typical Gaussian distribution
It can be inferred from the equation
graph has been shown in the
that the sharpness of the curve
following figure.
increases with the increase in the factor
(1 𝜎 2) . Similarly, the probability/
frequency/ number of reading found at
a value apart from the central value of
the curve decreses with the increse in
the term (𝟏 𝝈 𝟐), and, so, it is called
the Precision index.

Static
Characteristics
Another convenient way of representing precision in a Error probability

distribution graph is the Probable Error(PE).
Let us consider two points +r and -r (as shown in the graph) in the x-axis.
These points are taken in such a way
that the area under the curve bounded
by these two points is equal to the half
of the total area under the curve. Thus,
half of the values observed in the
samples of experiments lies within the
limit of ±r deviation from the central
-r +r value. Therefore, there is a 50%
probability that a new measurement
The value of the r for a Gaussian
would not show an error more than ±r.
or Normal distribution of errors
Hence the PE is denoted by the r.
can be calculated as follows-
𝟏 +𝒓
𝒙−𝑿 𝟐 𝟏 r=0.6745σ
𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝒅 𝒙−𝑿 =
𝝈 𝟐𝝅 −𝒓 𝟐𝝈𝟐 𝟐 for Gaussian Distribution
Static
Characteristics
• We have seen that the Random errors can be estimated by

statistical means.
• It has also been discussed that Gross Errors can be eliminated by
careful observations.
• Now, we can argue that Systematic Errors, whose cause are known
(unlike Random errors), can also be eliminated.
Yes, theoretically we can eliminate the Systematic errors. But ,in doing so,
the features, constraints and, thereby, the cost of an instrument increases
so high that most often they can not be accessed easily.
Secondly, in spite of knowing the sources of a systematic error, it is not
always possible to eliminate the error due to limitations in science and
technology.
 Therefore, we compromise and accept some tolerable error in our
measurement system and other instruments.
 So, the instrument manufacturers specify the maximum possible
error in their system and we purchase based on our requirement
and budget.
Static
Characteristics
The error in an measurement system is specified by the manufacturers of

the system mostly by either of the following terms.
 Standard Deviation(σ):- The result is expressed as 𝑥 ± 𝜎. This means
that there is a probability of 68% that the error lies between ±𝜎.
 Probable Error (PE):- The result is expressed as x ± 0.6745σ and there
is a probability that 50% of the results would have an error limited to ±
0.6745σ.
 ±2σ limit :-The result is expressed as x±2σ and probability of error to
be limited in the range ±2σ is 0.9546 (or 95%).
 ±3σ limit:-The result is expressed as x±3σ and probability of error in
measurement to be limited within the range of ±3σ is 99.74%.
Here, it is worth noticing that the statistical errors we were discussing are
describing primarily the Random Error. The sharpness of the statistical
distribution of the random error describe precision of the system.
Static
Characteristics
Precision refers to the closeness of the measurement to each other.

Therefore, a highly precise system can produce significant inaccurateness
due to the systematic errors. So, accuracy has got a different definition
than the above.
 Accuracy is the measure of “trueness” in the data.
The following example can help us to discriminate the difference between
accuracy and precision .
 Imagine data points as projectiles hitting a bull’s eye. The first thing
that matters to a shooter is how close their shots to the center. This is
the accuracy.
 The second thing that matters is how consistent a group of shot is. This
is the measure of precision. The measure is easier to grasp when it is
visualized.
High precision, Low precision, High precision, Low precision,

High accuracy High accuracy Low accuracy Low accuracy
Static
Characteristics
Accuracy has two definitions as follows –

 Most commonly, it is a description of systematic errors, a measure
of statistical bias, low accuracy causes a difference between a
result and a true value. ISO calls this trueness.
 Alternatively, ISO defines accuracy as describing a combination of
both types random and systematic errors. So, high accuracy
requires both high precision and high trueness.
According to ISO 5725-1:

Reference Value
Inverse of
Trueness Accuracy consists of both the
trueness (proximity of measurement
result to the true value) and
precision (repeatability or
Inverse of Precision
reproducibility of the measurement)

Static
Characteristics
The accuracy and precision of a measurement process is usually

established by repeatedly measuring some traceable reference standard.
Such standard are defined in the international system of units and
maintained by national standard organization.
Therefore, with regard to accuracy, we can distinguish the following-
 The difference between the mean of the measurement and the
reference value (i.e., the standard)- this is called the ‘measurement bias’
or simply the ‘bias’.
Measurement
 The precision
Reference Value
Bias
The combined effect of the

above two is termed as
“Accuracy”.
(1 𝜎 2)
Static
Characteristics
• If you place a quarter on a standard electronic balance, you may obtain a

reading of 6.72 g. The digits 6 and 7 are certain, and the 2 indicates that
the mass of the quarter is likely between 6.71 and 6.73 grams.
 The quarter weighs about 6.72 grams, with a nominal uncertainty in
the measurement of ± 0.01 gram.
• If we weigh the quarter on a more sensitive balance, we may find that its
mass is 6.723 g.
 This means its mass lies between 6.722 and 6.724 grams, an
uncertainty of 0.001 gram.
Every measurement has some uncertainty, which depends on the device
used (and the user’s ability).
All of the digits in a measurement, including the uncertain last digit,
are called significant figures or significant digits.
Note that zero may be a measured value; for example, if you stand on a
scale that shows weight to the nearest pound and it shows “120,” then the 1
(hundreds), 2 (tens) and 0 (ones) are all significant (measured) values.
Static
Characteristics
Starting with the first nonzero digit on the

left, count this digit and all remaining
digits to the right. This is the number of
significant figures in the measurement
unless the last digit is a trailing zero lying
Captive zeros result from measurement to the left of the decimal point.
and are therefore always significant.
Leading zeros, however, are never
significant—they merely tell us
where the decimal point is located.
The leading zeros in this example are not

significant. If the number was expressed as
8.32407 × 10−3; then the number 8.32407
contains all of the significant figures
Static
Characteristics
The number of significant figures is uncertain in a number that ends with a

zero to the left of the decimal point location. The zeros in the measurement 1,300
grams could be significant or they could simply indicate where the decimal point is
located. The ambiguity can be resolved with the use of exponential notation: 1.3 ×
103 (two significant figures), 1.30 × 103 (three significant figures, if the tens place was
measured), or 1.300 × 103 (four significant figures, if the ones place was also
measured). In cases where only the decimal-formatted number is available, it is
prudent to assume that all trailing zeros are not significant.
Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures:

When we add or subtract numbers, we should round the result to the same number
of decimal places as the number with the least number of decimal places (i.e., the
least precise value in terms of addition and subtraction).
(a) Add 1.0023 g and 4.383 g. 5.385 g (b) Subtract 421.23 g from 486 g. 65 g
Static
Characteristics
Q, A component manufacturer constructs certain resistors having values

anywhere between 1.14 𝑘Ω and 1.26 𝑘Ω and classifies them as 1.2 𝑘Ω
resistors.
a) What tolerance should be stated for them?
b) If the resistor values are specified at 25℃ and the resistors have a
temperature coefficient of 500 𝑝𝑝𝑚/℃ , calculate the maximum
resistance that one of these components might have at 75℃.
Solution:
Absolute error = 1.26 − 1.2 𝑘Ω = +0.06 𝑘Ω
= 1.2 − 1.14𝑓 𝑘Ω = −0.06 𝑘Ω
= ±0.06 𝑘Ω
±0.06 𝑘Ω
Tolerance = × 100% = ±5%
1.2 𝑘Ω
Largest possible resistance at 25℃ is 1.26 𝑘Ω
500
Resistance change per ℃ is = 500 𝑝𝑝𝑚 of R = 6 × 1.26 𝑘Ω = 0.63 𝑘Ω
10
0.63
So, the maximum resistance at 75℃ is = 1.26 + × 75 − 25 𝑘Ω =
103
1.29 𝑘Ω
Static
Characteristics
Q. What is Precision Index for a Gaussian distribution of errors?

A. 𝟏 𝝈 𝟐
Q. What is probable error? What is the value of P.E. for a Gaussian
distribution of errors.
A. P.E. is the range of measured values within which the probabilitity of
occurrence of a new measurement is ½. The P.E. for a Gaussian
distribution of errors is 0.6745𝜎.
Q. What is Precision?
A. The sharpness of the statistical distribution of the random error describe
precision of the system.
Q. Accuracy is the combination of the ____________
A. Measurement bias and Precision
Q. How many significant figures are there in the number 0.008020?

A. Three

Dynamic Characteristics

Dynamic
Characteristics
• Inputs of every measurement system is dynamic in nature, i.e., they

vary with time, and, therefore ,so is the output.
• The behaviour of a system under such condition is described by its
dynamic response.
• The dynamic response are of two types-
 Transient
 steady state
Dynamic response can be obtained under two types of inputs –
(a) steady state periodic and (b) transient
𝑣0
𝑠𝑤 𝑉
𝑣0
𝑉
𝑡
A steady state periodic input is one whose magnitude has a definite

repeating time cycle, whereas the time variation of a transient magnitude
does not repeat.
Dynamic
Characteristics
All measurement system has some energy storage elements, such as-
inductance, capacitance, mass, inertia etc. This energy storage element
do not allow an immediate flow of energy when an input is applied to a
system, and therefore the measurement system does not respond
immediately to the input. Hence, the measurement system goes through a
transient state before it finally settles to its steady state position.
Therefore, the response of a measurement system subjected to a time

varying input can be divided into two parts –
(i) transient response [𝑪𝒕 (𝒕) ] and (ii) steady sate response [(𝑪𝒔𝒔 (𝒕)]
So, the total time response – 𝑪 𝒕 = 𝑪𝒕 (𝒕) + 𝑪𝒔𝒔 (𝒕)
The steady state response is the response of the system when the
time reaches to infinity after applying the input.
Actually, the transient response goes to zero as the time becomes large i.e.,
𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝑪𝒕 𝒕 = 𝟎 and 𝑪𝒕 (𝒕) = 𝑪𝒔𝒔 (𝒕) as the time approaches infinity
𝒕→∞

Dynamic
Characteristics
Some measurement are made under conditions that sufficient time is

available for measurement system to settle to its final steady state
conditions. Under such condition the transient behaviour of the system is
not of much importance, and only the steady state response is
considered.
 However, in many areas of measurement system application, it becomes
necessary to study the response of the system under both transient and
steady state conditions.
 In many applications, the transient response of the system, i.e., the
way the system settles down to its final steady state, is more important
than the steady state response. Example –
Air-bag system in cars
A steady state periodic input can take one of the following forms –
» A purely sinusoidal input
» A complex time varying repetitive input, which is a
combination of fundamental harmonics
Dynamic
Characteristics
The response of measurement system to periodically varying inputs is not

important during the first few cycles when the system goes through
transient conditions.
ignore
System
But, it is important to note the time when the system settles down to final
steady state condition.
The measurement system, when subjected to periodically varying
inputs, exhibits in their response a magnitude and phase relationship
which is different from that of the input signal because of the energy
storage elements.
In such a case, the output is not a faithful representation of the input
in the sense that the fundamental and the harmonics in the input
waveform are not reproduced in the output both in magnitude and
phase relationships as in the input. The output is distorted in terms of
magnitude as well as phase relationships.
Dynamic
Characteristics
In these aspects, the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system are

clustered in the following group:-
❶ Speed of response, ❷ Fidelity, ❸ Measuring lag, and ❹ Dynamic error
Among above, the first two are desirable characteristics whereas the next two are
undesirable.
Speed of response is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system
responds to change in the measured quantity.
Fidelity is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
Measuring Lag is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement
system to changes in the measurement quantity. These are of two types –
 Retardation Type:-In this case, the response of the measurement system
begins immediately after a change in the measured quantity has occurred.
 Time delay type:-In this case, the response of the measurement system
begins after a dead time from the application of the input.
Dynamic Error is the difference between the true value of the quantity (under
measurement) changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement
system if no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error.
Dynamic
Characteristics
The above dynamic behaviour/characteristics are studied in two domains –

❶ Time domain, and ❷ Frequency domain
Time Domain:-In time domain analysis, the response of a system is
analysed subjected to different types of dynamic inputs.
 In practice, the input signal to be applied to a measurement system is
not known in prior.
 In most cases the actual input signal vary in random fashion with
respect to time, and therefore can’t be defined mathematically.
However, for purpose of analysis, it is necessary to assume some basic
types of input signal, which can be defined mathematically, such that
the performance of the system can be estimated and analysed.
In time domain analysis, the following are the standard time domain
input signals.
❶ Step Input, ❷ Ramp Input,
❸ Parabolic Input, and ❹ Impulse Input
Dynamic
Characteristics
Step Input :-This represent a sudden change in the input and is defined as –
𝑨, 𝒕≥𝟎 This can be defined in terms of
𝒇 𝒕 = an Unit Step function 𝑈(𝑡) as –
f(t) 𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
A The Laplace transform of 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝑼 𝒕 , where
U(t) is 𝟏 𝒔 𝟏, 𝒕≥𝟎
where 𝒔 = 𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎 𝑼 𝒕 =
𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
t
The Laplace transform of f(t) is 𝑨 𝒔
Ramp Input:-
𝑨𝒕, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝒈 𝒕 = This can be defined in terms of an
g(t) 𝟎, 𝒕 < 𝟎
t1 Unit Ramp function 𝑟(𝑡) as – 𝒈 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒓 𝒕 , where
𝒕, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 The Laplace transform of
r 𝒕 =
t1 t 𝟎, 𝒕 < 𝟎 r(t) is 𝟏 𝒔𝟐
The Laplace transform of g(t) is 𝑨 𝒔𝟐
Dynamic
Characteristics
Parabolic Input :- 𝒕𝟐 , 𝒕≥𝟎 This is a Unit Parabolic Input

𝒑 𝒕 =
𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
p(t)
𝒕𝟐
The Laplace transform of p(t) is 𝟏 𝒔𝟑
A Parabolic Input can be defined with respect to

t the Unit Parabolic Input as – 𝒑𝟏 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒑 𝒕
Impulse Input:- This is one of the most important inputs for estimating
𝜹(𝒕) dynamic response of a system. The input is also known
𝟏 as delta function and is defined as-
𝟏 𝜺 𝛅(𝐭) = 𝟎 ; 𝐭 ≠ 𝟎 and The Laplace
𝜺 transform of 𝛅(𝐭) is 𝟏
−𝜺
𝛅(𝐭) 𝐝𝐭 = 𝟏 ; where 𝛆 → 𝟎
−𝜺 𝜺 t Although perfectly impulse function can not be realized
practically, it can be estimated or approximated by a pulse of small width
having an unit area. A delta function can be also estimated by using unit step
inputs as – 𝑼(𝒕)−𝑼(𝒕−𝜺)
𝛅 𝒕 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎
𝛆→𝟎 𝜺
Static
Characteristics
Q. What are the different kinds of dynamic responses?

A. The dynamic response are of two types – (i) Transient (ii) Steady State
Q. What are the different forms of the Steady State Periodic Input?
A. (i) A purely sinusoidal input (ii) A complex time varying repetitive
input (which is a combination of fundamental harmonics)
Q. What are the different categories of Dynamic Characteristics?
A. (i) Speed of response (ii) Fidelity (iii) Measuring lag (iv) Dynamic error
Q. Measuring Lag is of two types, i.e., __________ and __________.

A. Retardation Type, Time-Delay Type
Q. Define Impulse Input

A. 𝛅(𝐭) = 𝟎 ; 𝐭 ≠ 𝟎 and
𝜺
−𝜺
𝛅(𝐭) 𝐝𝐭 = 𝟏 ; where 𝛆 → 𝟎

Dynamic
Characteristics
The frequency domain analysis of a system pertains to the steady state

response of the system to a sinusoidal input and the system response is
studied with frequency as the independent variable.
 In a Linear system, the response of the system under sinusoidal input
gives the following advantage in analysis.
 The system may be subjected to periodically varying sinusoidal
input while in actual use.
 The system may be subjected to a time varying signal of complex
nature, however which can be considered to be composed of a
number of sinusoidal inputs of different amplitude and frequency.
Therefore, the output can also be generated using superposition of
the outputs from the sinusoidal inputs (by virtue of linearity) .
 The system may be subjected to various types of time varying
signals like step, ramp, or parabolic inputs, which are again can be
configured by proper combination of sinusoidal input; and hence
the output can be estimated by superposition as stated above.
When a system is subjected to a sinusoidal input, such as – r(t)=𝑨𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕,
the output of a linear system incurs a change in phase amplitude or both and
generated an output as – c(t)= 𝑨𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝋)
Dynamic
Characteristics
Mathematical model of a system is called Linear if it obeys the laws of –

❶ Superposition ❷ Homogeneity
Suppose, the system is subjected to inputs – 𝒙𝟏 (𝒕), 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕),………, 𝒙𝒏 (𝒕)
and the corresponding outputs are – 𝒚𝟏 (𝒕), 𝒚𝟐 (𝒕), . . . . . . ., 𝒚𝒏 (𝒕)
𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒂 𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝒕 +
𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒕 + 𝒂 𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒕 +
⋮ System
⋮
𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 𝒕 𝒂 𝒏 𝒚𝒏 𝒕
law of superposition
Then, the system response to any linear combination of the inputs, i.e.,
𝑎1 𝑥1 +𝑎2 𝑥2 +………+𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 , would be equal to the some linear combination of
the outputs, i.e., 𝑎1 𝑦1 , +𝑦2 +. . . . . . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑦𝑛 , where, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , …, 𝑎𝑛 are constants.
Property of homogeneity
It signifies that the inputs 𝑥1 (𝑡), 𝑥2 (𝑡),………,, 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) are of the same form and
so are also the outputs i.e.,, 𝑦1 (𝑡), 𝑦2 (𝑡), . . . . . . . , 𝑦𝑛 (𝑡).
In case a system does not obey any of the above condition, the system
would be termed as non-linear.
Dynamic
Characteristics
There is a easier means of understanding that a system would depict

linearity or not.
A system would depict linearity, in case the coefficients of the
differential equation describing the system are either constants or
function of time (independent variable).
Otherwise, if the coefficients are the functions of the dependent variable,
the system would exhibit nonlinearity.
Linear Systems are further classified as –
❶ Linear time invariant(LTI) system
❷ Linear time variant system
linear time invariant system, the coefficient of the differential
equation describing the system are constants.
Linear time variant system, the coefficients are functions of time (the
independent variable).
Dynamic
Characteristics
There are several mathematical tools available for analysing linear

systems. Some of them are –
 Laplace Transform
 Fourier Transform
Unfortunately, Most of the practical system are nonlinear in nature.
Therefore, often several approximations are performed to linearize a

nonlinear system in order to simplify the mathematical analysis.
Nevertheless, this compromises with accuracy in describing the system
behaviour. So, a common means to analyse a system is to perform.
 Firstly, Linear approximation and corresponding analysis of the
system
 Secondly, gradually relaxing the constraints considered for
linearizing the system, in order to obtain a more accurate
description of the system.

Dynamic
Characteristics
y Most often a linear system produces

y=mx+c. a continuous curve. Let, the curve is
∆y described as y=f(x), where x is the
𝑦0 independent variable.
Slope (m) Consider the equation of the tangent
𝑑𝑓 line be y=mx+c.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0
c ∆x Let 𝒙𝟏 & 𝒙𝟐 two inputs at two
y=f(x) different instance with 𝒚𝟏 & 𝒚𝟐 as
0 𝑥0 the respective outputs.
x
As per superposition rule, the output of the system, if it is linear ,would exhibit
y1+y2 while an input(𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 ) would be given to the system.
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎𝒙𝟏 + 𝒄 ; 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒎𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄
Now, adding y1+y2 would result in m(𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 )+2c, which is not equal to the
output when the system is fed with an input (𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 ).
*Therefore, a straight line is not linear unless it passes through the origin
Dynamic
Characteristics
If we consider that the curve is resembling a straight line for a small span ∆x
from the point 𝒙𝟎 and the corresponding output is spanning from 𝒚𝟎 to
𝒚𝟎 +∆y, then we can infer the following.
 𝒚𝟎 = m𝒙𝟎 +c
 𝒚𝟎 + ∆y = 𝒎(𝒙𝟎 +∆x)+c
 ∆y = m∆x
Therefore, the straight line formed by this small increment span of the
span is linear. The same would have occurred if we have shifted the origin
to (x0,y0). So, for any small change within the limit of ∆x in the input x0,
the system dynamics would behave linearly corresponding to the
generation of small change in the output from y0.
This can be generalized for any curve y=f(x) as follows using Taylor series,
as –
𝒅𝒇 (𝒙−𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒅𝟐 𝒇 (𝒙−𝒙𝟎 )𝟐
Y=f(x)=f(𝒙𝟎 )+ + + 𝟐 + ……………..
𝒅𝒙 𝒙=𝒙𝟎 𝟏! 𝒅𝒙 𝒙=𝒙𝟎 𝟐!
Dynamic
Characteristics
𝒅𝒇 (𝒙−𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒅𝟐 𝒇 (𝒙−𝒙𝟎 )𝟐
Y=f(x)=f(𝒙𝟎 )+ + + 𝟐 + ……………..
𝒅𝒙 𝒙=𝒙𝟎 𝟏! 𝒅𝒙 𝒙=𝒙𝟎 𝟐!
For a small change in the input quantity, (x-x0) is small and (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝟐

is smaller and so are the higher powers of (x-x0).
Neglecting the higher (≥2) order term of (x-x0), the equation becomes
–
𝒅𝒇
Y=f(𝒙𝟎 ) + (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
𝒅𝒙 𝒙=𝟎
= f(𝒙𝟎 ) + m(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
= 𝒚𝟎 + m(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
𝐨𝐫, (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 ) = m(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )
where, m is the slope of the curve at x=𝒙𝟎

Dynamic
Characteristics
An example of linearization of a nonlinear system

Torque of the system T=MgL sin(𝛉)
Where M is the mass of the body, g is the
𝛉 L
gravitational acceleration and 𝛉 is the angle of
pendulum from the vertical line.
Taylor series expansion as-
𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
T = MgL 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝜽=𝟎 + MgL 𝜽=𝟎 (𝜽 − 𝟎)
𝒅𝜽
𝛉 = MgL*0+MgL 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝜽=𝟎 *𝛉
MgL sin(𝛉)
= MgL𝛉
Mg which is a linear equation.
Now, in the process of characterizing the dynamic response of a system, our
next step would be to model system dynamics through differential equations.
Be it a electrical or mechanical or thermal or any physical system, it
can be characterized through differential equation dynamics and an
electrical analogy can be imposed to the dynamics. So, we would study
electrical system first.
Dynamic
Characteristics
Series Connection of RLC with a constant voltage source:
Dynamics of the system can be described using

the following equation
𝒅𝒊 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒒 𝒅𝒒 𝟏
𝑬𝒊 = 𝑹𝑰 + 𝑳 + 𝑰𝒅𝒕 = 𝑳 𝟐 +R + 𝒒(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝑪 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑪
Parallel Connection of RLC with a constant Current source:
Dynamics of the such can be described as –

𝑬 𝟏 𝒅𝑬 𝒅𝟐 𝝋 𝟏 𝒅𝝋 𝟏
I= 𝟎 + 𝑬𝟎 𝒅𝒕 + 𝑪 𝟎 = 𝑪 + + 𝛗
𝑹 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑹 𝒅𝒕 𝑳

Dynamic
Characteristics
Translational:
We know that when a mass M is subjected to a
force F(t)
𝑭(𝒕) = 𝑴𝒂(𝒕)
M X(t) where a(t) is the acceleration.
Lets consider that the final displacement be x(t).
Therefore,
𝒅𝟐 𝒙(𝒕)
F(t) 𝑭(𝒕) = 𝑴𝒂(𝒕) = 𝑴
𝒅𝒕𝟐
When a spring is rigid at one end and force (F) is

applied to the other, the displacement of the
Spring x(t) from its equilibrium is dependant on
X(t)
the Spring Constant (K) as -
𝑭(𝒕) = 𝑲𝒙(𝒕)

Dynamic
Characteristics
Translational:
When a force is applied to a dashpot having viscous

fluid of damping constant B, the displacement
B Dashpot occurred within the dashpot is related as –
𝒅𝒙(𝒕)
𝑭(𝒕) = 𝑩
X(t) 𝒅𝒕
Therefore in the case where all the above

three are incorporated in a single system.
The force-displacement relation may be

described
𝒅𝟐 𝒙(𝒕) 𝒅𝒙(𝒕)
𝑭 𝒕 = 𝑴𝒂 𝒕 = 𝑴 + 𝑩 + 𝑲𝒙(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕

Dynamic
Characteristics
Rotational Torque
Inertia :- The torque applied to a body,
having an inertia (J), would produce an
angular acceleration 𝛂(𝐭) as-
𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝟐 𝜽(𝒕)
𝑻𝒋 (𝒕) = 𝐉𝛂(𝐭) = 𝐉 = 𝑱 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Torsional Torque:-
When a torque is applied to an elastic mass
through an angle θ, the angular torque 𝑻𝒌
generates proportionate angular
displacement i.e.,
𝑻𝒌(𝒕) = 𝑲𝜽(𝒕)
where K is the Torsional constant

Dynamic
Characteristics
Damping Torque:-
When a rotational System moves (i.e., rotates) being submerged in a
viscous fluid, the rotational angular displacement θ, the angular
acceleration (w) and the applied torque (TB) are related as follows.
𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝜽(𝒕)
𝑻𝑩 = 𝑩𝝎 = 𝑩 OR 𝑻𝑩 𝒕 = 𝑩
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
where B is the damping Constant or viscous friction constant
So, when such three systems combines together under a torque T, the
differential equation governing such system can be stated as follows –
𝒅𝟐 𝜽(𝒕) 𝒅𝜽(𝒕)
𝑻𝑩 𝒕 = 𝑱 𝟐
+𝑩 + 𝑲𝜽(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
In a similar way, a ‘thermal‘ or a 'liquid’ level system can also be described

by suitable differential equations.
Dynamic
Characteristics
Now, one thing is noticeable that the description (mathematical) or

Dynamic of a mechanical system is equivalent to a electronic circuit-
system. Except the fact that –
in mechanical System position or angle is being displayed

whereas in electronics it is the charge.
Therefore, a number of parameters of mechanical system can be related

to an electronic parameter such that –
 the behavioural description of an the mechanical, parameter can be

inferred from that of the electronic parameter. This is known as-
analogy.

Dynamic
Characteristics
Dynamics of mech. Dynamics of a mech. Dynamics of a elect.

translational system rotational system series system
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞
F= M 2 +B + 𝑲𝑥 T= J 2 +B + 𝑲θ 𝐸𝑖 = L 2 +R + 𝑞/𝑪
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Displacement (x) Angular Displacement charge (q)
(𝛉)
Viscous Friction Constant Viscous friction Constant Resistance (R)
or Damping Constant (B) or Damping constant (B)
Mass (M) Inertia (J) Inductance (L)

Spring Constant (k) Torsional Constant(K); Reciprocal of
Capacitance(1/C)
Force (F) Torque (T) Voltage (𝐄𝐢 )
𝑑𝑥 𝐝𝛉 Current (i)
Velocity ( ) Angular Velocity ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝐝𝐭

Dynamic
Characteristics
The mathematical model used to describe the dynamic response of most of

the engineering applications is a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) model, and
the input-output relationship of a LTI system is primarily described by its
Transfer function.
Any LTI system can be described by the following generalized nth order
differential equation:
𝒅𝒏 𝒄(𝒕) 𝒅𝒏−𝟏 𝒄(𝒕)

𝒂𝒏 𝒏
+ 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒏−𝟏
+ … + 𝒂𝟎 𝒄 𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒎
𝒅 𝒓(𝒕) 𝒅𝒎−𝟏 𝒓(𝒕)
= 𝒃𝒎 𝒎
+ 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒎−𝟏
+ … + 𝒃𝟎 𝒓 𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Where, r(t) is the input variable and C(t) is the output variable. The 𝒂𝒏 ,
𝒂𝒏−𝟏 , …, 𝒂𝟎 and 𝒃𝒎 , 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 , …, 𝒃𝟎 are constants with 𝒏 ≥ 𝒎.
The above differential equation is able to describe any LTI system.

Dynamic
Characteristics
For Example: -
The input variable in the spring-mass-damper system is the Force (F(t)),
and the corresponding output variable is the displacement (x(t)) from
the equilibrium.
𝒅𝟐 𝒙(𝒕) 𝒅𝒙(𝒕)
𝑴 𝟐
+𝑩 + 𝑲𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑭(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Where, the coefficients of the differential
terms had been constant and the highest
power of the differential terms (i.e. n) had
been 2.
The highest power of the differential terms in the differential

equation describing a LTI system is known as the ‘order’ of the
system.
Therefore the order of the generalized LTI system described above is ‘n’, and
the order of the spring-mass-damping system is 2.
Dynamic
Characteristics
Now, as stated before, the most convenient way of describing a LTI system
is its transfer function.
The transfer function of a LTI system is defined as the ratio of
Laplace Transforms of the output variable to that of the input
variable with all the initial condition are taken as zero.
Thus, in order to obtain the transfer function of the generalized LTI system,
the generalized differential equation is required to be processed through
the Laplace Transform, as –
𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒏 𝑪(𝒔) + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒔𝒏−𝟏 𝑪(𝒔) + … + 𝒂𝟎 𝑪 𝒔
= 𝒃𝒎 𝒔𝒎 𝑹(𝒔) + 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒔𝒎−𝟏 𝑹(𝒔) + … + 𝒃𝟎 𝑹 𝒔
Where, 𝑪(𝑺) and 𝑹(𝑺) are the Laplace transform of the c(t) and r(t)
respectively.
Therefore, the transfer function –
𝑪(𝒔) 𝒃𝒎 𝒔𝒎 + 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒔𝒎−𝟏 + … + 𝒃𝟎
𝑮 𝑺 = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒔𝒏−𝟏 + … + 𝒂𝟎
with the constraint 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚.
Dynamic
Characteristics
The properties of a Transfer Function can be summarized as –

 The transfer functions can be defined for a LTI system
 The transfer functions of a LTI system can be defined as the ratio
of the Laplace Transform of the output variable to that of the
input variable
 All transfer functions are independent to its input excitations.
In the above context the transfer function of the spring-mass-damper

system can be written as –
𝑪(𝒔) 𝟏
𝑮 𝑺 = =
𝑹(𝒔) 𝑴𝒔𝟐 + 𝑩𝒔 + 𝑲
𝟏
? 𝑮 𝒔 =
𝑱𝒔𝟐

Dynamic
Characteristics
A system having a transfer function G(s) is usually represented by a Block

Diagram, as – I/P O/P
G(s)
R(s) C(S)
It is a pictorial representation of the input-output relationship of a System.
The above block diagram restates the relationship: 𝑪(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔) × 𝑹(𝒔)
Now, given a system having unknown transfer function, we can calculate the
transfer function of any system from the output if the Laplace
transform of the input, i.e., R(s), is taken as 1. i.e.,
C(s)= G(s), if R(s)=1
Now, we know the Laplace transform of an Impulse function is 1.
Therefore, if an impulse function is given to the input of a System and the
output is recorded, the Laplace transform of the output would be the Transfer
function of the system. Here, the Laplace inverse of this output, i.e. the
Transfer function, is called the impulse response, g(t).
Therefore, to summarize, if g(t) is the impulse response of a system, its
Laplace transform G(s) is Transfer function of the system. This is also
called weighting function.
Dynamic
Characteristics
Sinusoidal Transfer Function:

A transfer function is usually represented in 𝒔(= 𝝈 + 𝒋𝝎) domain.
However, if it is represented only in frequency terms, i.e. only in terms of 𝒋𝝎,
it would be called a Sinusoidal Transfer Function.
The sinusoidal transfer function of -
𝟏 𝟏
𝑮(𝒔) = is 𝑮(𝐣𝝎) =
𝑴𝒔𝟐 + 𝑩𝒔 + 𝑲 𝑴(𝒋𝝎)𝟐 + 𝑩(𝒋𝝎) + 𝑲
• Therefore, we can conclude that any LTI System can be expressed by

means of its Transfer Function that is described through the Laplace
transform of a differential equation relating its input-output.
• The order of the system plays a crucial role in describing frequency as well
as time domain behaviour of the system.
• Although, two system of same order from two different engineering
application domains behaves similarly, the different order systems behave
completely in different way. This is because the dynamic behaviour of a
system depends upon poles of the system, not on the type of input.
Dynamic
Characteristics
 Zero order System  First order system  Second order system

*higher order systems can be considered to behave similarly with the 2nd order system, although with
sufficient approximations
Zero Order System:
The highest order differentiation term in the differential equation &
describing a zero order system is zero. i.e., a zero order system can be
described as- 𝑏
 𝑎0 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑏0 𝑟(𝑡)  𝑐(𝑡) = ( 0 )𝑟(𝑡)
𝑎0
The system has no poles ;and therefore, the output follows the input without
any phase lag, however with a static Sensitivity or Steady state gain (𝒃𝟎 )
𝒂𝟎
An example of a zero order system is
potentiometer, where the output voltage
is dependent on the displacement of the
input slides. Lets consider that the total
length of the potentiometer is L , then
the static sensitivity is (Ei/L). Therefore,
the output voltage
𝑬𝒊
𝑬𝟎 𝒕 = ∗ 𝒙𝒊 𝒕 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒆 𝒂 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
𝑳
Dynamic
Characteristics
The highest power of the ‘s’ in the

denominator of the Transfer function is 1 in
𝑅 a first order LTI system.
𝑠𝑤 𝑖
Being an electronics engineer we
𝐸0
find comfort with electrical circuits. Hence,
𝐸𝑖
before analysing a generalised first order
system, we would start with a simple first
order electrical circuit as shown in the
figure.
The voltage current relationship of the adjacent circuit Can be
described as- 𝟏
𝑬𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝑹𝒊(𝒕) + 𝒊(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑪
𝟏
Performing Laplace transform - 𝑬𝒊 (𝒔) = 𝑹𝑰(𝒔) + I(s)
𝑪𝒔
𝑪𝒔
𝑰(𝒔) = 𝑬 (𝒔)
𝟏 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔 𝒊
Dynamic
Characteristics
Now, consider the switch SW that indicates a step input function

𝑪𝒔 𝑬 𝑪𝑬𝒊 𝑬𝒊 𝟏 𝐸
Therefore, I(s)= × 𝒊 = = × 𝟏 𝐸𝑖
𝟏+𝑹𝑪𝒔 𝒔 𝟏+𝑹𝑪𝒔 𝑹 𝒔+𝑹𝑪
𝑬𝒊 −𝒕/𝑹𝑪 𝑡
Or, 𝐢(𝐭) = 𝒆
𝑹
𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑆𝑊 𝑜𝑛
𝑠𝑤 𝑅 𝑖 In that case, the output voltage –

𝐸𝑖 𝐸0
𝐸𝑖
𝟏 𝐸0
E0(t) = 𝒊𝒅𝒕
𝑪
𝟏 𝑡
Or, E0(s) = I(s)
𝑬𝟎 (𝒕) = 𝑬𝒊 (𝒕)-Ri(t) 𝑪𝒔 𝐸𝑖
𝟏 𝑪
𝑬 = 𝑬 𝑅
= 𝑬𝒊 (𝒕)- R* 𝒊 𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪 𝑪𝒔 𝟏+𝑹𝑪𝒔 𝒊
𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝑪
= 𝑬𝒊 [1- 𝒆 −𝒕/𝑹𝑪
] = 𝑬𝒊 [ - ] 𝑖(𝑡)
𝒔 𝟏+𝑹𝑪𝒔
𝑡
= 𝑬𝒊 [1- 𝒆−𝒕/𝑹𝑪 ]
Dynamic
Characteristics
Now, let us generalize the concept for any kind of First order systems.
The differential equation describing a first order system is –

𝑑𝑐(𝑡)
𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑏0 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
In the above case, the system would have a static sensitivity 𝑏0 𝑎0 , i.e. the above
system can be written as –
𝑑𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑐(𝑡)
𝑎1 𝑎0 + 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑏0 𝑎0 𝑟(𝑡)  𝜏 + 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑔 𝑟(𝑡) 
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝜏𝐶(𝑠) + 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑔 𝑅(𝑠)
Here, g is the static sensitivity (or gain) of the and 𝝉 is the time constant of the system
A First Order System would consists of a transfer function –
𝑏0 𝑏0 /𝑎0 𝑔
𝐺 𝑠 = = =
𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0 (𝑎1 /𝑎0 )𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝐶 𝑠 𝑔
As, 𝐺 𝑠 =  𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠
𝑅 𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1
This system , now, can be subjected to any kind of inputs. Here we can evaluate
the system under some standard time domain inputs, such as – STEP INPUT
Dynamic
Characteristics
The Step Input has a transfer function (1/s). So, the output –
𝒈 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪 𝒔 = × =𝒈 −
𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔 𝒔+ 𝟏 𝝉
𝒕
−𝝉
So, 𝒄 𝒕 = 𝒈 [𝟏 − 𝒆 ]
Considering that the static sensitivity or gain of the system is ‘1’, we arrive to
the following time domain characteristics.
1 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 −
𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝝉𝟏 𝐸0
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑐(𝑡) ~37% 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝜏
𝝉𝟐 ~5% 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 3𝜏
𝝉𝟐 > 𝝉𝟏 ~1% 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 5𝜏
𝑡
𝑡0
Dynamic
Characteristics
One should remember that all of the above analyses are made considering the
initial condition to be zero. However, this is not the case always. If the initial
condition of the output c(t) is ci and the Steady State condition is co ,the fist
order System would have a dynamics as -
C (t )  C0  (Ci  C0 ) exp(t /  )
Or, C (t )  Ci exp(t /  )  C0 [1  exp(t /  )
Some Examples of First Order Systems
Q1:- A Thermometer has a time constant of 3.5s. It is quickly taken from a
temperature 0℃ to water bath having a temperature 100℃ . What temperature
will be indicted after 1.5s.
Ans:- The thermometer is subjected to a step input of 100℃ from the initial
temperature 0℃. Therefore, the resultant temperature θ after 1.5s can be
calculated as    0  (i   0 ) exp(t /  )
= 100+(0-100)exp(-1.5/3.5)
=34.86℃

Measurements and Instrumentations Till First Order System

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Measurements and Instrumentations Till First Order System

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Course Course

Name of Course L T P Credit

N Topics to be Covered Lecture

4 Moving coil, moving iron meters and multimeters 7

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 2

☼ The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 4

☼ The advancement of Science and Technology is dependent upon a

☼ Classification of the standards are given as follows.

The working standard for electrical/electronics laboratory are precise

Q. What are the different kinds of measuring standards?

Now before the discussion about the apparatus of measurement let us

Performance of a measurement system is evaluated based on their

Q. What are the primary methods of measurement?

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 15

All the static performance of an equipment are characterized by a process of

√ Accuracy, √ Sensitivity, √ Reproducibility, √ Repeatability, √ Precision

As error is unavoidable in most of the instrumentation system, most of the

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 17

It can be seen from the figure that the Linear

Is this graph really linear?

linear function f(x) should satisfy Additivity:

Although linear relationship is recommended/ preferred in measuring

Q. A mercury thermometer has a capillary tube of 0.25 mm diameter. If the

So, the volume of the bulb = Ac × Lc = 𝝅 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟐 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 =

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 20

line in the figure shows the actual

For example, the resistance used in a potentiometer should vary linearly

Full Scale Deflection

Q. A 10𝑘 variable resistance has a nonlinearity of 0.1% and the movement

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 23

Q. Name a few metric for defining static characteristics.

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 24

Hysteresis is a phenomenon, which depicts

Output A DEAD ZONE is defined as the largest

Reproducibility is the degree of closeness with which a given value

Repeatability is the closeness of the agreement between the results of

Although Reproducibility and

Repeatability is not related with

A measurement may be said to

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 28

 From the above concepts, we understood that error is omnipresent

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 30

Systematic error is introduced by the measuring system itself.

A worn out instrument. For example, a plastic tape measure becomes

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 32

The systematic error can be categorized in-

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 33

Q. What are the different types of errors?

Q. Where we left the last class?

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 35

Random (Residual) Error:-

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 36

Statistical Analysis and Estimation of Errors:-

Method of collecting experimental data for statistical estimation is

There are numerous ways to statistically represent a data. A few of which

presented by Mrinal Sen

Now, as we have seen, most of the practical data cluster around a

Deviation is another statistical tool used for estimating the error.

4 February 2021 presented by Mrinal Sen 42

Q. What is Random Error?

Q. What is the formula of standard deviation if the sample size is <20 ?

Q. Measuring Lag is of two types, i.e., and .