MODULE-I:

INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION
EEE 4033
LECTURE 1:
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Course Instructor:-
Dr. K.V.Lakshmi Narayana,
Sr. Associate Professor
SELECT, VIT, Vellore.
 Course Outcomes
On successful completion of this course, the student will be able to

1. Understand the physics and methodology for various

types of pressure measurement systems
2. Have detailed knowledge and understanding of a
wide range of flow measuring techniques
3. Exercise appropriate judgement in planning, design,
technical evaluation of temperature measurement
4. An understanding of theory, concepts and methods
pertaining to the speed measuring technique.
5. Will be able to design the industrial level
measurement system
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Course Outcomes Cont…
6. Formulate responses to well defined Force
and torque process parameter problems
7. Demonstrate a range of standard and
specialized research or equivalent tools and
techniques of vibration parameters
8. Learn to self-evaluate and take responsibility
for continuing academic/professional
development by means of project and product
development
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Major Industries
 Petrochemical – Oil and Gas
 Cement
 Fertilizer industries
 Water industries
 Power generations
 Automotive sectors
 Clay manufacturing
 Sugar industry
 FMCG – Food processing industries
 Pharmaceuticals
 Petrochemical – Oil and Gas

2/5/2021 5
 Cement industry Fertilizer industries

2/5/2021 6
 Scope of
instrumentation

Controlling
Measuring • Machine/Factory
automation
• Monitoring • Plant/Process
• Calibration automation
• Data acquisition
Functional Block Diagram of Computer
Control System
 Outline of Lecture-1
• Syllabus ( Module-1 to 8)
• Fundamentals of Measurement Systems
• Pressure Measurement--- Significance, Types, Units and so on
• Elastic type pressure gauges
• Electric Methods: Elastic elements with LVDT,
Strain gauge, capacitive techniques…
• Piezoresistive pressure sensor
• Resonator Pressure sensor

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Industrial Instrumentation: Module-1
• Pressure Measurement:
Elastic type pressure gauges – Bourdon tubes,
bellows, diaphragms;
Electrical methods – elastic elements with
LVDT and strain gauges –capacitive type
pressure gauge – piezoresistive pressure sensor
–resonator pressure sensor ;
Measurement of vacuum – McLeod gauge –
pirani gauge - thermal conductivity gauges –
Ionization gauge, cold cathode and hot cathode
types. Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Industrial Instrumentation: Module-2
• Flow Measurements:
• Pressure gradient techniques, Positive
displacement flow meters, turbine flow meter;
Rotameter: Design– Coriolis mass flow meters –
thermal mass flow meter – volume flow meter;
• Electrical type flow meter: Electromagnetic flow
meter, different types of ultrasonic flow meters –
laser doppler anemometer systems; vortex
shedding flow meter – target flow meter – solid
flow rate measurement.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Industrial Instrumentation: Module-3
• Temperature, Measurements:
RTDs and Thermistor characteristics;
Thermocouples-Laws, Principles, cold junction
compensation;
Radiation methods of temperature measurement
total and selective radiation pyrometers –optical
pyrometer;
Thermal conductivity measurements-liquids and
gases.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Industrial Instrumentation: Module-4
• Level Measurements:
• Gauge glass technique coupled with photo
electric readout system; float type level indication
– different schemes – level switches level
measurement using displacer and torque tube –
bubbler system;
• differential pressure method;
• electrical types of level gauges using resistance,
capacitance.
• nuclear radiation and ultrasonic sensors.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Industrial Instrumentation: Module-5

• Force and Torque Measurements:

• Hydraulic – Pneumatic – Resistive (Strain
gauge) Force measurement:
• Different methods of torque measurement –
Strain gauge, relative regular twist.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Industrial Instrumentation: Module-6

• Speed measurement:
Revolution counter – Capacitive tacho-drag cup
type tacho – D.C and A.C tacho generators –
Stroboscope.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Industrial Instrumentation: Module-7
• Vibration Measurement:
• Nature of vibrations – Seismic transducer – Types of
accelerometers – Potentiometric type – LVDT
Accelerometer – Piezo electric type.

Industrial Instrumentation: Module-8

Recent Advances and contemporary issues by industry
experts.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Introduction to Measurement Systems
Definitions
• Measurement
– It is basically an act or result of comparison between
the quantity (whose quantity is unknown) and a
predefined standard.
(or)
– The process of converting physical parameters to
meaningful numbers.
• Instrumentation
– The technology of using instruments to measure and
control the physical and chemical properties of the
materials.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Introduction to Measurement Systems
• There are two basic requirements in order to have meaningful
results of the measurand.

a) The standard used for comparison purpose must be

accurately defined and should be universally accepted.
b) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be
provable.

There are different standard bodies like

• International Standards Organization (ISO)

• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Standards Council of Canada ( SCC)
• British Standards (BS) Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Significance of Measurement
• The advancement of science and technology highly
depends on the progress of measurement techniques.
As it moves ahead, the new phenomena and new
discoveries requires the new measurement techniques.

• In the case of process industries and industrial

manufacturing, the significance of measurement is

– To improve the quality of the product

– To improve the efficiency of production
– To maintain the proper operation.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Significance of Measurement Cont..
• The measurement is essential in all the disciplines
for the following major functions
1. Design of equipment and processes.
2. Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes.
• Significance of Instrumentation
1. To acquire data or information (hence data acquisition) about
parameters, in terms of:
– putting the numerical values to the physical quantities
– making measurements otherwise inaccessible.
– producing data agreeable to analysis (mostly in electrical form)

2. Data Acquisition Software (DAS) – data is acquired by the

instrumentation system.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Elements of generalised measuring system
Basic components in a measurement system are shown
below:

Amplification and Conditioning

It is also important to mention that a power supply

is an important element for the entire system.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Function of Elements
1. Primary Sensing Element:
The primary sensing element receives signal of the physical quantity
to be measured as input. It converts the signal to a suitable form
(electrical, mechanical or other form), so that it becomes easier for
other elements of the measurement system, to either convert or
manipulate it.
2. Variable Conversion Element:
Variable conversion element converts the output of the primary
sensing element to a more suitable form. It is used only if necessary.
3. Variable Manipulation Element:
Variable manipulation element manipulates and amplifies the output
of the variable conversion element. It also removes noise (if present)
in the signal.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
4. Data Processing Element:
Data processing element is an important element used in many measurement
systems. It processes the data signal received from the variable manipulation
element and produces suitable output.
Data processing element may also be used to compare the measured value
with a standard value to produce required output.
5. Data Transmission System:
Data Transmission System is simply used for transmitting data from one
element to another. It acts as a communication link between different
elements of the measurement system. Some of the data transmission elements
used are cables, wireless antennae, transducers, telemetry systems etc.
6. Data Presentation Element:
It is used to present the measured physical quantity in a human readable form
to the observer. It receives processed signal from data processing element and
presents the data in a human readable form. LED displays are most
commonly used as data presentation elements in many measurement systems.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
1. Analog Displays: Pointer–scale indicators
 Pointer–scale indicators
• Simplified diagram for a moving coil indicator connected to a
Thevenin signal source ETh, RTh is shown in figure.
• The coil is situated in a radial magnetic field of flux density B, so
that a current i through the coil produces a deflecting torque. This
deflecting torque is opposed by the restoring torque of control
springs attached to the movable coil.
• When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stopped.
According to the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the
coil will rotate in the magnetic field when it carries an electric
current by electromagnetic (EM) torque effect.
• A pointer which is attached to the movable coil will deflect
according to the amount of current to be measured which applied
to the coil. Its angular deflection represents the amount of
electrical current to be measured. If the permanent magnet field is
uniform and the spring is linear, then the pointer deflection is also
linear.
 2. Digital Displays: Data Presentation Elements
• There are four types of digital display technology in wide
current use: light emitting diodes (LED), cathode ray tubes
(CRT), liquid crystal displays (LCD) and electroluminescent
displays (EL).
• LEDs have high power consumption, which makes them only
suitable for small-scale character displays; they are not used
in graphic displays.
• CRTs are used for character and graphics displays,
monochrome and colour, but have the disadvantage of high
operating voltages and are high-volume bulky devices.
• LCDs are used for both character and graphics displays. LCD
character displays, usually monochrome, have much lower
power consumption than equivalent LED displays.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Data Presentation Elements

• Electroluminescent displays are also flat screen and are used for
both character and graphics monochrome displays. They have higher
operating voltages and power consumption than equivalent LCD
devices but greater contrast ratio and viewing angle.
• Chart recorders give a record, on paper, of the time variation of a
measured variable; these can be analogue or digital and the record
can be either a continuous line or a series of dots. They can record
up to six variables but have limited speed of response; they also
require regular replacement of paper and pens.
• Paperless recorders use LCD displays and digital archive memory;
these typically can record four measured variables and have less
maintenance requirements than chart recorders. They also have a
fast speed of response.
• Laser printers can print large amounts of data, in character or
graphics form, on paper. A laser printer is used where large tables of
numerical data need to be printed out for checking and calculation.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Various components of elements

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Example 1: Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Example: Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Example 2: Pressure Transmitter with voltage output

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Pressure Measurement

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 The Importance of Pressure Measurement
• Across various industries, measuring the pressure of a substance is an
important part of the manufacturing process. Obtaining accurate and
meaningful data is important in determining the quality and consistency
of the product. For these reasons, accurate sensors are absolutely
critical in obtaining this information. Each sensor takes the physical
pressure of the element and transfers it into electrical energy of some
kind that can be measured.
• Accurately measuring liquid, gas, and steam pressure is a basic
requirement for many industrial processes to operate safely, efficiently,
and with optimum quality control.
• In addition to directly measuring pressure values, pressure
measurements can be used to determine or infer flow rates, fluid levels,
product density, and other parameters. As a result, many plants rely on
pressure-measurement devices to get required field measurements.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Pressure Measurement
• Gramercy Works Alumina Plant
Explosion July 5, 1999 St. James
• Why is it important? Parrish Louisiana
• Reason: Turned off pressure
devices
 What is pressure?
 Pressure is the force per unit area that a liquid or gas
exerts on its surroundings, such as the force or pressure
of the atmosphere on the surface of the Earth, and the
force that liquids exert on the bottom and walls of a
container.
• Many industrial processes operate at pressures that are
referenced to atmospheric pressure, and are known as
gauge pressures. Other processes operate at pressures
referenced to a vacuum, or can be referred to as
negative gauge pressure. Atmospheric pressure is not a
fixed value, but depends on factors such as humidity,
height above sea level, temperature, and so forth.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Overview
Pressure (P ) expresses the magnitude of normal force (F-N) per unit area (A-
m2) applied on a surface
F F
P  or P 
A A
Pressure units are a measure of force acting over unit area. It is
most commonly expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or
sometimes pounds per square foot (psf) in English units; or Pascals
(Pa) in metric units, which is the force in Newtons per square meter
(N/m2).
Units: Pa(= N/m2), psi(=lbf/in2), bar (=105 Pa=100 kPa), mbar (=100 Pa=1 hPa),
atm (=101.3 kPa), mmHg (or Torr), inHg, etc.
Note: For every Unit: hUnit=hectoUnit=100 Unit

Where Pabs : Absolute pressure

P P
abs P
atm gage
Patm : Atmospheric pressure
(standard is: 101.3 kPa =14.696 psi=760 mmHg=29.92 inHg)
Pgage : Gauge pressure
Conversion factors for units of pressure
 Following are the six terms in common use
applied to pressure measurements.
 Total vacuum is zero pressure or lack of pressure, as
would be experienced in outer space, and is very difficult
to achieve in practice. Vacuum pumps can only approach
a true vacuum.
 Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the Earth’s
surface, due to the weight of the gases in the Earth’s
atmosphere (14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa absolute). The
pressure decreases above sea level. For example, at an
elevation of 5,000 ft, it has dropped to approximately
12.2 psi (84.122 kPa).
 Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect
to a vacuum, and is expressed in psia or kPa(a). Note the
use of a and g when referencing the pressure to absolute
and gauge.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with respect to
atmospheric pressure, and is normally expressed in psig
or kPa(g).
 Vacuum is a pressure between total vacuum and normal
atmospheric pressure. Pressures less than atmospheric
pressure are often referred to as “negative gauge,” and
indicated by an amount below atmospheric pressure. As
an example, −5 psig corresponds to 9.7 psia.
 Differential pressure is the pressure measured with
respect to another pressure, and is expressed as the
difference between the two values. This represents two
points in a pressure or flow system, and is referred to as
the “delta p,” or Δp. Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Figure 7.1 shows graphically the relation between
atmospheric, gauge, and absolute pressures

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Relationship between absolute and gauge pressures

Pabs=Pgauge+Patm
Forms of pressure

Gauge pressure Absolute pressure

Differential pressure
 Problems
• The atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. If the
absolute pressure is 20 psia, what is the gauge
pressure?

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Pressure Measuring Instruments
• Several instruments are available for pressure
measurement, these instruments can be divided
into pressure measuring devices and vacuum
measuring devices.
• Gauges are a major group of sensors that
measure pressure with respect to atmospheric
pressure. Gauge sensors are usually devices that
change their shape when pressure is applied.
These devices include diaphragms, capsules,
bellows, and Bourdon tubes.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Types of Measurement
• Mechanical Pressure transducers
– U-tube manometer, Bourdon tube, Diaphragm
and Bellows
• Electrical Pressure transducers
– Elastic elements + Strain Gauge, Capacitive sensor,
Potentiometric, Resonant Wire, Piezoelectric,
Magnetic, Optical
 Mechanical Pressure Transducers
• Mechanical pressure measurement devices are
large and cumbersome.
• Not suited for automated control loops typical in
industry.
• Mechanical devices:
– U-tube Manometer
– Bourdon tube
– Diaphragm and Bellows element
 Elastic type Pressure gauges: 1) Diaphragms
• Diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film of a
material supported on a rigid frame, as shown in
Figure (a).
• Pressure can be applied to one side of the film for
gauge sensing, with the other inlet port being left
open to the atmosphere.
• Pressures can be applied to both sides of the film for
differential sensing, and absolute pressure sensing can
be achieved by having a partial vacuum on one side of
the diaphragm.
• A wide range of materials can be used for the sensing
film: rubber or plastic for low pressures, silicon for
medium pressures, and stainless steel for high
pressures.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Elastic type Pressure gauges: 1) Diaphragms
a) Capacitive type Pressure Sensor using Diaphragm

• When a pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the film

distorts or becomes slightly spherical, and can be
sensed using a strain gauge, piezoelectric, or changes
in capacitance techniques. Older techniques included
magnetic and carbon pile devices.
• In the device shown, the position of the diaphragm is
sensed using capacitive techniques, and the
measurement can be made by using an ac bridge
techniques. These techniques are very accurate, and
excellent linear correlation between pressure and
output signal amplitude can be obtained.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Elastic type Pressure gauges: 1) Diaphragms

Cross section of (a) capacitive sensor, and (b) microminiature silicon

pressure sensor
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Bridge circuit for capacitive pressure sensor:
 b) Microminiature silicon pressure sensor:
Construction and Operation
• The cross section shown in Figure 7.5(b) is a differential
silicon chip (sensor die) microminiature pressure sensor. The
dimensions of the sensing elements are very small, and the die
is packaged into a plastic case (0.2 in thick × 0.6 in diameter,
approximately).
• Silicon diaphragms are now in common use. Since silicon is a
semiconductor, a piezoresistive strain gauge and amplifier
electronics can be integrated into the top surface of the silicon
structure, as shown in Figure 7.5(b). These devices have built-
in temperature compensation for the strain gauges and
amplifiers, and have high sensitivity, giving a high output
voltage (5V FSD).
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 b) Microminiature silicon pressure sensor:
Characteristics

• They are very small, accurate (<2% FSD), reliable,

have a good temperature operating range (−50° to
120°C), are low cost, can withstand high overloads,
have good longevity, and are unaffected by many
chemicals.
• Commercially made devices are available for gauge,
differential, and absolute pressure sensing up to 200
psi (1.5MPa). This range can be extended by the use
of stainless steel diaphragms to 10,000 psi (70 MPa).

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
b) Microminiature silicon pressure sensor:
Applications

• The sensor is used in a wide variety of industrial

applications, widely used in automotive pressure
sensing applications (e.g., manifold air pressure,
barometric air pressure, oil, transmission fluid, break
fluid, power steering, tire pressure, and many other
applications such as blood pressure monitors) .

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Diaphragms: Mathematical description
The mathematical relation between pressure and central deflection for a flat
circular diaphragm is given by

3 p 4
dm  3
D (1  2
)
256 Yt

D=Diameter of the diaphragm

3 p 4
R=Radius of the diaphragm dm  3
R (1  2
)
t= Thickness of the diaphragm 16 Yt
ν= Poisson’s ratio
 Types of Diaphragm
(a) flat diaphragm; (b) corrugated diaphragm
• A diaphragm usually is designed
so that the deflection-versus-
pressure characteristics are as
linear as possible over a
specified pressure range, and
with a minimum of hysteresis
and minimum shift in the zero
point.
• Corrugated diaphragms permit
considerably larger deflections
than flat diaphragms
 To amplify the motion that a
diaphragm capsule produces, several
capsules are connected end to end.
 Diaphragm type pressure gauges are
used to measure gauge, absolute, or
differential pressure.
 They are normally used to measure
low pressures of 1 inch of Hg, but
they can also be manufactured to
measure higher pressures in the range
of 0 to 330 psig.
 They can also be built for use in
vacuum service.
 Capsule
 A capsule is formed by
joining the peripheries
of two diaphragms
through soldering or
welding.
 Used in some absolute
pressure gages.
 Elastic type Pressure gauges: 2) Bourdon Gauges
 The Bourdon tube pressure gauge was patented in France by Eugene Bourdon
in 1849.
 Bourdon gauges are available to cover a large range of pressures. Bourdon
gauges are purely mechanical devices utilising the mechanical deformation
of a flattened but bent tube that winds or unwinds depending on the pressure
difference between the inside and the outside. The motion is against a spring
torque such that a needle attached to the shaft indicates directly the pressure
difference. The working principle of the bourdon gage is explained with
reference to the figure below .
 Elastic type Pressure gauges: 2) Bourdon Gauges
- The Bourdon tube is a metal tube of elliptic cross section having a
bent shape as shown in figure
-The inside of the tube is exposed to the pressure to be measured.
- The outside of the Bourdon tube is exposed to a second pressure,
usually the atmospheric.
-The Bourdon tube is held fixed at one end (the end connected to the
pressure source) and the other end is connected by linkages to a
spring restrained shaft.
- A pointer is mounted on the shaft, as indicated in the figure.
- The needle moves over a circular scale that indicates the pressure.
- The position of the needle is determined by a balance between the
Bourdon tube developed torque acting on the shaft and the torque due
to the shaft mounted spring that opposes its movement.
- Bourdon gages are available for measuring pressures higher/lower
than the atmospheric pressure.
-The pressure indicated is referred to as the gauge pressure if it is
with respect to the atmospheric pressure outside the Bourdon tube.
 Elastic type Pressure gauges: 2) Bourdon Gauges

Materials of the
Bourdon tube are
Phosphor bronze,
Beryllium bronze or
Beryllium Copper.
Elastic type Pressure gauges: 2) Bourdon Gauges
 Types of Bourdon Tubes

• (a) C-type tube.

• (b) Spiral tube.
• (c) Helical tube
 Types of Bourdon Tubes: C type tube
Applications: tire pressure, pressure at
the top or along the walls of tanks or
vessels

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

• In “C” type Bourdon tube, a section of tubing that is closed at

one end is partially flattened and coiled.
• When a pressure is applied to the open end, the tube uncoils.
• This movement provides a displacement that is proportional to
the applied pressure.
• The tube is mechanically linked to a pointer on a pressure dial
to give a calibrated reading.
 Elastic type Pressure gauges: 3) Bellows

 Bellows are made of Bronze, S.S., BeCu, Monel etc..

 The movement is proportional to number of convolutions
 Sensitivity is proportional to size
 In general a bellows can detect a slightly higher pressure than a
diaphragm
 The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 0-2000 psi
 Accuracy in the range of 1% span
Elastic type Pressure gauges: 3) Bellows
Elastic type Pressure gauges: 3) Bellows

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Elastic type Pressure gauges: 3) Bellows
 Range of Elastic-Element Pressure Gauges

Sensitivity is more in Diaphragms compared to Bellows.

 Sensing Elements (Elastic Elements)
The main types of sensing elements
are

Bourdon tubes,
diaphragms,
capsules, and
bellows .

All except diaphragms provide a

fairly large displacement that is
useful in mechanical gauges and for
electrical sensors that require a
significant movement.

The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped

Bourdon tube (A); a helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm (C); a
convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or a set of bellows (F).
 Pressure Measuring Devices
U-tube Manometer

Principles: Hydrostatic Law

∆P=ρ g h
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Problems
1. A metallic diaphragm has 2 mm thickness used for the
measurement of a differential pressure 4 Kg/cm2 is required to
give a deflection of its center by 1.2 mm. What should be its
diameter if the Young’s modulus and Poisson's ratio of the
material are 1,00,000 Kg/cm2 and 0.2 respectively

2. A variable capacitance pressure sensor used for the

measurement of differential pressure 3 Kg/cm2 has the following
specifications: diameter of the clamped diaphragm is 18 mm,
thickness of diaphragm is 1.5 mm, Young’s modulus E of
diaphragm material is 2.07X105 N/mm2, Poisson’s ratio is 0.3.
What is the deflection of the diaphragm at 0.4 mm from centre
along with length of the diaphragm?

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Conversion factors for units of pressure