15ME402 METROLOGY AND QUALITY

CONTROL

UNIT I: TYPES OF
MEASUREMENTS,COMPARATOR
AND GAUGE DESIGN
 Meaning of Metrology
• Metrology is the science of measurement.
• It is a greek word Metron (Measurement), Logo (Scince).
• For engineering purposes can say it measurement of length and
angles and other qualities which are expressed in linear (width,
height) or angular terms.
Defination:
Metrology is “the science of measurement, take both experimental
and theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any
field of science and technology,” as defined by the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, 2004).
 Continue..
• Metrology is mainly concerned with:

(1) Establishing the units of measurements, ensuring the

uniformity of measurements.

(2) Developing methods of measurement.

(3) Errors of measurement.

(4) Accuracy of measuring instruments and their care.

(5) Industrial inspection and its various techniques.

 Types of metrology

Different fields of Metrology

Scientific Industrial Legal

Metrology Metrology Metrology
Scientific metrology:
•The scientific method deals with the organisation,
maintenance and development of measurement
standards of the international system of units (SI)
system.

•It involves in to develop new technologies for

industries concerning gov., healthcare and research for
commercial products.
Industrial metrology:
•The industrial metrology is deal with ensure that
functioning of instruments used in wide variety of
industries are functioning properly.

•Example of this type of metrology is the production of

products for the commercial industry, the testing and
designing of aircraft, the functioning of large machinery,
or even in factories using rotating equipment during the
manufacturing of their products.
 Legal Metrology
• Legal Metrology
Legal metrology is directed by a national organization which is
called national service of Legal metrology. It includes a no. of
international organization whose ultimate object is to maintain
uniformity of measurement throughout the world.
• The activities of legal metrology are:
(1) Control of measuring instruments.
(2) Testing of prototype/models of measuring instruments.
(3) Examination of measuring instrument to verify its
conformity.
Need for inspection:
•To ensure components and parts conform to the established
standards.

•To meet the interchangeability of manufacturer.

•To provide the means of findings the problem areas.

•To produce the parts having acceptable quality level.

•To find the possibility of rework of scarp or defective parts

and re-engineer the process.

•For manufacturing of product guide to select the quality of raw

material , tools and equipment
 Objectives of Metrology:
The basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required accuracy
at a minimum cost.

1. Newly developed products evaluation.

2. Find the Process Capabilities.
3. Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that
they are quite sufficient for their respective measurements.
4. Reducing the inspection cost by effective and efficient use of available
facilities.
5. Reducing the rejection cost and rework through application of statistical
quality control techniques.
6. To standardise the measuring methods.
7. To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
 Process of measurement:

• The sequence of operations necessary for the

execution of measurement is called process of
measurement.
• There are main three important elements of
measurement,
(1) Measured:
- Measured is the physical quantity or
property like length, angle, diameter,
thickness etc. to be measured.
 Continue..
(2) Reference:
- It is the physical quantity or property to which quantitative
comparisons are made.

(3) Comparator:
- It is the means of comparing measuring measurand with some
reference.
• In fitting shop a fitter has to measure the length of M.S. plate- first he
place his rule along the flat. He then carefully aligns the zero end of
his rule with one end of M.S. flat and finally compares the length of
M.S. flat with the graduations on his rule by his eyes.

• In this example, the length of M.S. flat is a measurand, steel rule is

the reference and eye can be considered as a comparator.
Write a short notes for given questions:

•Give a example for scientific metrology consider present

pandemic covid -19. situation.

•How to study of metrology and how is help ful in life

sciences.
References:
Books:
•Jain.R.K, “Engineering Metrology”, Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 2012.

Websites:(Visited date:29/6/20 to 1/7/20)

•https://what-when how.com/metrology/classification-of-
methods-of-measurements-metrology/
•https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/104/112104250/
15ME402 METROLOGY AND QUALITY
CONTROL

Methods of measurements
 Methods of Measurement:
• The methods of measurement can be classified as:
(1) Direct method:
• This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of the
quantity to be measured is obtained directly without the calculations.
• Example: By using given instruments scales, vernier callipers,
micrometers, bevel protector etc… measure the product.
• This method is most widely used in production. This method is not very
accurate because it depends on human judgment.
(2) Indirect method:
• In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by
measuring other quantities which are functionally related to required
value.
• Example: Taking measurements like angle measurement by sine bar,
measurement of shaft power by dynamometer etc.
 Measuring system:
• A measuring system is made of five elements:
These are:
(1) Standard
(2) Work piece
(3) Instrument
(4) Person
(5) Environment
- The most basic element of measurement is a standard without which no
measurement is possible.
- Once the standard is chosen select a work piece on which measurement
will be performed.
- Then select a instrument with the help of which measurement will be done.
- The measurement should be performed under standard environment.
- And lastly there must be some person or mechanism to carry out the
measurement.
 Accuracy:
• Accuracy is defined as the closeness of the
measured value with true value.
OR
• Accuracy is defined as the degree to which the
measured value agrees with the true value.
• Practically it is very difficult to measure the true
value and therefore a set of observations is made
whose mean value is taken as the true value of the
quantity measured.
 Precision:
• A measure of how close repeated trials are to each other.
OR
• The closeness of repeated measurements.
• Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process. It refers
to the group of measurements for the same characteristics
taken under identical conditions.
• It indicated to what extent the identically performed
measurements agree with each other.
• If the instrument is not precise it will give different results for
the same dimension when measured again and again.
 Continue..
1. Factors affecting the standard. It may be affecting by:
- Coefficient of thermal expansion,
- calibration internal
- stability with time
- elastic properties
- geometric compatibility
2. Factors affecting the work piece, these are
- cleanliness, surface finish, surface defects etc.
- elastic properties
- hidden properties
- arrangement of supporting workpiece.
 Continue..
3 .Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of instrument.
- Scale error
- effect of friction, hysteresis, zero drift
- calibration errors
- repeatability and readability
- constant geometry for both work piece and standard
4. Factors affecting person:
- training skill
- ability to select the measuring instruments and standard
- attitude towards personal accuracy achievements
- sense of precision appreciation
 Continue..
5. Factors affecting environment:
- temperature, humidity etc.
- clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision
- temperature equalization between standard, workpiece and
instrument,
- thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights, heating
elements, sunlight and people.

SWIPE for convenient reference

Where,
S- standard
W- Workpiece
I- Instrument
P- Person
E- Environment
Other methods of measurements:
Fundamental method - It is based on the measurement of the
base quantities used to define the quantity (using base units).

Comparative method - In this method the value of the quantity

to be measured is compared with known value of the same
quantity.
Example: the deviations from a master gauge are determined,
e.g., dial indicators, or other comparators

Transposition method - Quantity to be measured is first

balanced by a known value (A) and then balanced by an other
new known value (B).
Example: Finding of weight by balancing methods
Coincidence method - It is a differential method of measurement in
which a very small difference between the value of the quantity to be
measured and the reference is determined by the observation of the
coincidence of certain lines or signals
Example: vernier calliper, micrometer

Deflection method - The value to be measured is directly indicated by a

deflection of pointer .

Complementary method - The value of quantity to be measured is

combined with known value of the same quantity.
Example: determination of the volume of a solid by liquid displacement

Contact method - Sensor/Measuring tip touch the surface area .

Non-Contact Method - Sensor/Measuring tip not in contact with the

surface area of measurement
Classification of Measuring Instruments.
According to the functions
(1) Length measuring instruments.(Scale, Vernier…etc)
(2) Angle measuring instruments. (Bevel protractor..etc)
(3) Instruments for checking the deviations from geometrical forms.
(4) Instruments for determining the quality of surface finish.

According to the accuracy of measurement

(1) Most accurate instruments e.g., light-interference instruments.
(2) Second group consists of less accurate instruments such as tool room
microscopes, comparators, optimeters etc.
(3) The third group comprises still less accurate instruments e.g., dial
indicators, vernier calipers and rules with vernier scales.
 Characteristics of Measuring
instruments
Sensitivity:
• Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the
indicating device of an instrument, with respect to the
measured quantity.

• Sensitivity of thermometer means that it is the length of

increase of the liquid per degree rise in temperature. More
sensitive means more noticeable expansion.
Readability - The closeness with which the scale of the
instrument may be read.

Calibration - Procedure of making, adjusting or checking a

scale so that readings of an instrument conform to an accepted
standard.

Repeatability – It is the ability of the measuring instrument to

repeat the same results for the measurements for the same
quantity, when the measurement are carried out.
➢ by the same observer, with the same instrument, under the
same conditions, without any change in location, without
change in the method of measurement and the measurements
are carried out in short intervals of time
Reproducibility:
• Reproducibility is the closeness of the agreement between
the results of measurements of the same quantity, when
individual measurements are carried out:
- by different observers,
- by different methods,
- using different instruments,
- under different conditions, locations, times etc.
• It may be expressed in terms of the dispersion of the results.

Least count – the smallest difference between two indications

that can be detected on the instrument scale.
 Magnification:
• Magnification is the process of enlarging something only in
appearance, not in physical size so that it is more readable.

(The stamp appears larger with the use of a magnifying

glass.)
This curtsey from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnification#/media/File:Magnifying_glass2.jpg,Date of
vist:26/6/20
To obtain this type of numerical information, it is necessary
to use the Lens Equation and the Magnification
Equation. The lens equation expresses the quantitative
relationship between the object distance (do), the image
distance (di), and the focal length (f). The equation is stated
as follows: 1 1 1
= +
f do di

The magnification equation relates the ratio of the image

distance and object distance to the ratio of the image height
(hi) and object height (ho). The magnification equation is
stated as follows: hi di
M= =−
ho do
References:
Books:
•Jain.R.K, “Engineering Metrology”, Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 2012.

Websites:(Visited date:29/6/20 to 1/7/20)

•https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/metrology
•https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/104/112104250/
15ME402 METROLOGY AND QUALITY
CONTROL

Role of NPL and Sources of errors

 Role of NPL
•NPL give a support of organizational structure for metrology in
India.

•The objective to strengthen and advance physics-oriented

research for the overall development of science and technology
in the country.

•NPL has the responsibility of physical measurements based on

the International system (SI units) under the subordinate
legislation of Weights and Measures Act 1956 (reissued in 1988
under the 1976 Act).

•NPL maintains seven SI base units, viz., meter, kilogram,

second, kelvin, ampere, candela, mole (mol) and the SI
supplementary units radian (rad) and steradians (sr).
The main objectives of the NPL’s work are as follows :
•To establish, maintain and improve continuously the national
standards for measure-ments for the benefit of the country and
also to realize the units based on International Systems (SI).

•To determine the major physical constants

•To develop and evaluate measurement techniques

•To assist industries, governmental and other agencies in their

developmental task by precision measurements, calibration and
development of devices and processes related to physics

•Laboratory’s commitment to good professional practice and

quality of its calibration and testing in serving to industry.
 Sources of Errors:
Common sources of error are mostly its environmental error,
instrumental error and human error. These errors may either
random or systematic depending up on how they affect the
results.

•Environmental error: The environmental error happens when

some factor in the environment, such as an uncommon event,
leads to error. For example if you are trying to measure the
weight of potato's on a weighing machine, and your room is
full of windy, the wind may cause the scale to read incorrectly.

These curtsey is
from:(4/7/20)
https://detoxinista.com/inst
ant-pot-baked-potatoes/
Instrumental error: The instrumental error happens when the
instrument used wrongly are procedurally not used.
For example the digital Vernier both jaws close to gather and set
zero point then have to measure the product but with out setting
zero point taking measurement means it will show different
valve other than the actual valve.

This curtsey from:(4/7/20) https://www.banggood.in/DANIU-6inch-0-150mm-

0_01mm-Digital-Caliper-Stainless-Steel-Electronic-Vernier-Calipers-p-
1216053.html?cur_warehouse=CN
Human Error:
The human error will happened is due to carelessness or
to the limitations of human ability.
There are two types of human errors.
• Transcriptional error it occurs when data is recorded are
collect incorrectly error will takes place.
Example: When a experimental valves are copied
incorrectly or when a value is skipped when typing data
into a computer program from a data sheet.

•Estimation error it can occur when reading measurements

on some instruments.
Example: When reading a Vernier you may read the dia of
pencil is being 5.4cm, while your friend may read its
5.2cm.
References:
Books:
•Jain.R.K, “Engineering Metrology”, Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 2012.

Websites:(Visited date:4/7/20
•https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112/104/112104250/
•https://what-when-how.com/metrology/role-of-national-
physical-laboratory-npl-in-metrology-metrology/
•https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/p
hysical/world-ocean/map-distortion/practices-
science-scientific-error
15ME402 METROLOGY AND QUALITY
CONTROL

Types of errors
Errors in measurements:
• It is never possible to measure the true value of
a dimension, there is always some error.
• The error in the measurement is the difference
between the measured value and the true value
of measured dimensions.
• The error in measurement may be expressed
either as on absolute error or as a relative error.
 Continue…
Absolute error:
- It is the algebraic difference between the result of measurement and
the conventional value of the quantity measured.

- Can be defined as the difference between the expected value of the

variable and the measured value of the variable.
- where
e = absolute error
Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value

e = Yn - Xn
 Continue…
Relative error:
- It is the quotient of the absolute error to the
true/actual valve.
- Percentage of error= absolute error/expected error
Example: The expected valve of the voltage across a resisitor
is 40v; however measurement of yields a valve is 38v. Find
the (a) Absolute error, (b) Percent error.
Solution: (a) e= Yn-Xn = 40-38 = 2v.
(b) percent error = Yn-Xn/Yn*100
=40-38/40*100 = 5%
 Continue…
• Types of errors:
During measurement several types of error may arise,
these are:
1. Static errors which includes:
(a) Reading errors
(b) Characteristic errors
(c) Environmental errors
2. Instrumental loading errors.
3. Dynamic errors.
Static error – These are the result of physical nature of the
various components of a measuring system.

•Reading error – error when the line of sight is not

perpendicular.

•Characteristic error – the deviation of the system output

from the theoretical predicted performance.

•Environmental error – error arising from the effect of

surroundings like pressure, temperature, humidity……
Loading error – If the datum surface is not flat or if
foreign matters like dirt, chips etc. get entrapped between
the datum and work piece then there will be loading error.

Dynamic error – This is due to the time variations in the

measurand. It is caused by inertia, friction, and clamping
action.
•Systematic errors or controllable errors
•Random errors
 Continue…

(a) Systematic or controllable errors:

- These errors are controllable in both their
magnitude and stress. These can also be determined
and reduced. These are due to:

(1) Calibrations errors:

- The actual length of standards such as scales will
vary from nominal value by small amount. This will
cause an error in measurement of constant
magnitude.
 Continue…
(2) Atmospheric error:
- Variation in atmospheric condition (i.e
temperature, pressure and moisture content) at
the place of measurement from that of
internationally agreed standard values (20’
temp. and 760 mm of Hg pressure) can give
rise to error in measurand size of the
component.
 Continue…
(3) Stylus pressure:
- Another common source of error is the pressure
with which the workpiece is pressed while measuring.
Though the pressure involved is generally small but
this is sufficient enough to cause appreciable
deformation of both the stylus and the workpiece.

Example:force applied by the anvils of micrometer on

the work to be measured results in the difference in
its readings. In this case error is caused by the
distortion of both micrometer frame and workpiece.
 Continue…

(b) Random errors:

- The random errors occur randomly and the specific causes
of such errors cannot be determined. The likely sources of
this type of error are:
• Small variations in the position of setting standard and
workpiece.
• Slight displacement of lever joints in the measuring
instrument.
• Friction in measuring system.
• Operator errors in reading scale.
 Systematic error
•It’s a repetitive in nature
•These errors results from improper
conditions and procedures
•Controlled in magnitude and sense
•Statistical methods does not apply
on error
•Example: Parallax erroe, calibration •Example: slight displacement of
erroe..etc.
Random error
•It’s a random in nature
•These errors are inherent in the
measuring system
•Accidental in nature and difficult to
control
•Statistical methods only apply on
error
measuring joint, friction of mating
parts..etc.
References:
Books:
•Jain.R.K, “Engineering Metrology”, Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 2012.

•Connie Dotson, Roger Harlow and Richard L. Thompson,

“Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology”, Thomson
Delmar Learning”, 4th edition, 2005.
15ME402 METROLOGY AND QUALITY
CONTROL

Standards of measurements
 Definition
• Standard is defined as ‘something that is set up
and established by an authority as rule of the
measure of quantity, weight, value”.

• For example, a meter is a standard established

by an international organization for
measurement of length.
 Role of standards
• The role of standards is to achieve uniform,
consistent and repeatable measurements
throughout the world.
• Today our entire industrial economy is based
on the interchangeability of parts the method
of manufacture.
 Linear and Angular mesuremnts
•Linear measurement includes the measurement of Lengths,
diameters, heights and thickness.

•Various devices are Vernier calipers, micrometers, slip gauge

or gauge blocks, comparators

• Angular measurement involves the measurement of angles

of tapers and similar surfaces.

• There are angle gauges corresponding to slip gauges and

divided scales corresponding to line standards. The most
common instrument is sine bar
Types of Standards:
1. Line standard
2. End standard
3. Wave standard
•Line Standard: When the length being measured is expressed as the
distance between two lines, this is known as, obviously, line standard.

•Measuring scale and tapes are also line standards and comes under
working standards of length measurement.

•Limited accuracy is 0.2mm.

•In this parallax error occurs

End standard:
•When the length being measured is expressed as the
distance between two surfaces or ends, this is referred as,
obviously, end standard. Slip gauges, end bars,
micrometers etc. are comes in this category.

•This form of measurement is very convenient to use in

tool-rooms, laboratories, workshops etc.

•End standards can be made to a very high degree of

accuracy.

•Example: Slip gauges, Gap gauges, Ends of micrometer

anvils, etc.
 SLIP GAUGES OR GAUGE BLOCKS
(JOHANSSON GAUGES)
• Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having cross
section of 30 mm face length & 10 mm face width
 Wave Length Standard (Optical standard)
• Wave length of pure monochromatic light source is used to
express definition of length
• Materials like Cadmium 114, Krypton 86 and Mercury 198
are possible sources
• When Kr 86 is kept in hot cathode discharge tube
maintained at 68 deg K
• Orange radiation is selected for measurement
 Sub Division of standards
• Three types are
•Primary standards ( reference standards): The main function of
primary standard is the calibration and verification of secondary
standards.

•Secondary standards (calibration standards): Secondary standards

are basic reference standards used by the measurement and calibration
laboratories. These secondary standards are main tend by the particular
industry to which they belong. Each industry has its own secondary
standard.

•Working standards: working standards are the main tools of a

measuring laboratory. These standards are used to check and calibrate
laboratory instrument for accuracy and performance.
 Calibration:
• The calibration of any measuring instrument is necessary to
measure the quantity in terms of standard unit.
• It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read
out device produces zero output for zero input.
 Continue…
• The process whereby the magnitude of the output of a
measuring instrument is related to the magnitude of the
input force driving the instrument (i.e. Adjusting a weight
scale to zero when there is nothing on it).

• The accuracy of the instrument depends on the calibration.

• If the output of the measuring instrument is linear and

repeatable, it can be easily calibrated.
 INTERCHANGEABILITY

• Interchangeable parts, the ability to select

components for assembly at random and fit them
together within proper tolerances.
• The operation of substituting the part for similar
manufactured components of the same shape and
dimension is known as interchangeability.
 SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY

Now a days peoples want not only quality, precision and trouble
free products but also they want attractive products. In this
assembly the manufactured products are classified in to many
types based on the size, usually it is done by both hole and shaft
basis system. Then corresponding group products will match
correctly. Therefore the tolerance varies for each and every
group products. In this system automatic gauging is used to
separate manufactured components.
References:
Books:
•Jain.R.K, “Engineering Metrology”, Khanna Publishers,
New Delhi, 2012.

•Connie Dotson, Roger Harlow and Richard L. Thompson,

“Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology”, Thomson
Delmar Learning”, 4th edition, 2005.

Websites:
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com (5/7/20)
 Limits, Fits, and Tolerances
• Learning Outcomes.
• understand the importance of manufacturing components
to specified sizes
• elucidate the different approaches of interchangeable and
selective assembly
• appreciate the significance of different types of limits, fits,
and tolerances in design and manufacturing fields, which
are required for efficient and effective performance of
components/products
• utilize the principle of limit gauging and its importance in
inspection in industries
• Under stand the concepts in GO and NOT gauges used in
workshops/ inspection
Reference :- ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS by N.V.
RAGHAVENDRA – OXFORD University Press
65
 Limits, Fits, and Tolerances -
Introduction
✓ During Production processes it must perform consistently
to meet the production and design requirements.
✓ In order to achieve this, it is essential to keep the process
under control.
✓ when the process is under control, distribution of most of
the measured values will be around the mean value in a
more or less symmetrical way, when plotted on a chart.
✓ It is impossible to produce a part to an exact size or basic
size and some variations, known as tolerances, need to be
allowed.
✓ Some variability in dimension within certain limits must be
tolerated during manufacture, however precise the process
may be.
✓ The permissible level of tolerance depends on the
functional requirements, which cannot be compromised.
66
 Limits, Fits, and Tolerances -
Introduction
✓ No component can be manufactured precisely to a given
dimension; it can only be made to lie between two limits,
upper (maximum) and lower (minimum).
✓ The designer has to suggest these tolerance limits, which are
acceptable for each of the dimensions used to define shape
and form, and ensure satisfactory operation in service.
✓ When the tolerance allowed is sufficiently greater than the
process variation, no difficulty arises.
✓ The difference between the upper and lower limits is termed
permissive tolerance.

67
 Limits, Fits, and Tolerances -
Introduction
• For example, a shaft has to be manufactured to a diameter of
40 +― 0.02 mm.
• This means that the shaft, which has a basic size of 40 mm,
will be acceptable if its diameter lies anywhere between the
limits of sizes, that is, an upper limit of 40.02 mm and a lower
limit of 39.98 mm.
• Then permissive tolerance is equal to 40.02 − 39.98 = 0.04.

68
Limits, Fits, and Tolerances - Introduction
✓ In any industry, a manufactured product consists of many
components. These components when assembled should
have a proper fit, in order for the product to function properly
and have an extended life.

✓ Fit depends on the correct size relationships between the two

mating parts. Consider the example of rotation of a shaft in a
hole. Enough clearance must be provided between the shaft
and the hole to allow an oil film to be maintained for
lubrication purpose.

✓ If the clearance is too small, excessive force would be required

to rotate the shaft. On the other hand, if the clearance is too
wide, there would be vibrations and rapid wear resulting in
69
ultimate failure.
 Limits, Fits, and Tolerances -
Introduction
✓ Therefore, the desired clearance to meet the requirements has to
be provided. Similarly, to hold the shaft tightly in the hole, there
must be enough interference between the two so that forces of
elastic compression grip them tightly and do not allow any relative
movement between them.

✓ Dimensional variations, although extremely small, do exist because

of the inevitable inaccuracies in tooling, machining, raw material,
and operators.

✓ If efforts are made to identify and reduce or eliminate common

causes of variation, that is, if the process is kept under control, then
the resultant frequency distribution of dimensions produced will
have a normal
70
 TOLERANCES
✓ Tolerance can be defined as the magnitude of
permissible variation of a dimension or other measured
value or control criterion from the specified value. It can
also be defined as the total variation permitted in the
size of a dimension, and is the algebraic difference
between the upper and lower acceptable dimensions. It
is an absolute value.

✓ The basic purpose of providing tolerances is to permit

dimensional variations in the manufacture of
components, adhering to the performance criterion as
established by the specification and design.

71
 Classification of Tolerance
• Tolerance can be classified under the following categories:

1. Unilateral tolerance 3. Compound tolerance

2. Bilateral tolerance 4. Geometric tolerance

• Unilateral Tolerance – (Either positive or negative, but not

both)
• When the tolerance distribution is only on one side of the basic size, it is
known as unilateral tolerance. In other words, tolerance limits lie wholly
on one side of the basic size, either above or below it.

72
 Bilateral Tolerance
• When the tolerance distribution lies on either side of the basic size, it is
known as bilateral tolerance.
• In other words, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both sides
of the basic size but may not be necessarily equally disposed about it.

73
 Compound Tolerance
• When tolerance is determined by established tolerances on
more than one dimension, it is known as compound
tolerance.
• For example, tolerance for the dimension R is determined by
the combined effects of tolerance on 40 mm dimension, on
60o, and on 20 mm dimension. The tolerance obtained for
dimension R is known as compound tolerance.

74
 Geometric Tolerance
• Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing, represents a way to define the size,
location, orientation, and form of a part feature.

• First box: On the left indicates the feature to be controlled, represented

• symbolically (example: concentricity).
• Centre box: indicates distance between the two cylinders, centres cannot be
• apart by more than 0.01 mm (Tolerance).
• Third box: Indicates that the datum is with X.

75
 FITS
• The degree of tightness and or looseness between the two
mating parts.

• The relationship between the two mating parts that are to be

assembled, that is, the hole and the shaft, with respect to the
difference in their dimensions before assembly is called a fit.

• 1. Clearance fit
• 2. Interference fit
• 3. Transition fit

76
 Clearance fit –(Upper limit of shaft is less
than the lower limit of the hole)
• The largest permissible diameter of the shaft is smaller than
the diameter of the smallest hole. This type of fit always
provides clearance.
• Small clearances are provided for a precise fit that can easily
be assembled without the assistance of tools.
• The minimum diameter of the shaft and maximum diameter
of the hole yields a clearance fit.
• for example, a shaft rotating in a bush. In case of clearance fit,
the difference between the sizes is always positive.

77
Interference fit – (Upper limit of the hole is
less than the lower limit of shaft)
• The minimum permissible diameter of the shaft exceeds the
maximum allowable diameter of the hole.
• This type of fit always provides interference. Interference fit is a
form of a tight fit.
• the combination of maximum diameter of the shaft and minimum
diameter of the hole results in an interference fit.
• When two mating parts are assembled with an interference fit, it
will be an almost permanent assembly, that is, the parts will not
come apart or move during use.

78
Transition fit – (Dia. of the largest permissible hole is
greater than the dia. of the smallest shaft)
• The diameter of the largest permissible hole is greater than the diameter
of the smallest shaft and the diameter of the smallest hole is smaller than
the diameter of the largest shaft.

79
 General Terminology
• Basic size: Exact theoretical size arrived at by design. Also called as
nominal size.
• Actual size: Size of a part as found by measurement
• Zero Line: Straight line corresponding to the basic size. Deviations are
measured from this line.
• Limits of size: Maximum and minimum permissible sizes for a specific
dimension.
• Tolerance: Difference between the maximum and minimum limits of size.
• • Allowance: LLH –HLS

80
• Deviation: Algebraic difference between a size and its corresponding basic
size. It may be positive, negative, or zero.

• Upper deviation: Algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size

and its corresponding basic size.

• Designated as ‘ES’ for a hole and as ‘es’ for a shaft.

• Lower deviation: Algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size

and its corresponding basic size.

• Designated as ‘EI’ for a hole and as ‘ei’ for a shaft.

81
• Actual deviation: Algebraic difference between the actual size and its
corresponding basic size.
• Tolerance Zone: Zone between the maximum and minimum limit size.

82
 Hole Basis and Shaft Basis Systems
• To obtain the desired class of fits, either the size of the hole or the size of
the shaft must vary.
• Two types of systems are used to represent three basic types of fits,
clearance, interference, and transition fits.
• (a) Hole basis system
• (b) Shaft basis system.

83
 Hole Basis systems
• The size of the hole is kept constant and the shaft size is varied to give
various types of fits.
• Lower deviation of the hole is zero, i.e. the lower limit of the hole is same
as the basic size.
• Two limits of the shaft and the higher dimension of the hole are varied to
obtain the desired type of fit.

84
(a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit

85
 Shaft Basis systems
• The size of the shaft is kept constant and the hole size is varied to obtain
various types of fits.
• Fundamental deviation or the upper deviation of the shaft is zero.
• System is not preferred in industries, as it requires more number of
standardize tools, like reamers, broaches, and gauges, increases
manufacturing and inspection costs.

86
(a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit

87
Limits, Fits, and Tolerances -
Tutorial
1

88
The following limits are specified in a limit system, to give a
clearance fit between a hole and a shaft: 2

89
90
Limits, Fits, and Tolerances - Tutorial 3

91
92
(e) Since both maximum and minimum clearances are positive, it can be
conclude that the given pair has a clearance fit.

93
Limits, Fits, and Tolerances - Tutorial
4

94
Limits, Fits, and Tolerances - Tutorial

95
 Principle of interchangeability
• For manufacturing a large number of components, it
is not economical to produce both the mating parts
(components) using the same operator. Further, such
parts need to be manufactured within minimum
possible time without compromising on quality.

• To enable the manufacture of identical parts, mass

production, an idea of the last industrial revolution
that has become very popular and synonymous with
the present manufacturing industry, becomes
inevitable.

96
 Principle of interchangeability
• Modern production techniques require that a complete
product be broken into various component parts so that the
production of each part becomes an independent process,
leading to specialization.

• The various components are manufactured in one or more

batches by different persons on different machines at
different locations and are then assembled at one place.

• To achieve this, it is essential that the parts are manufactured

in bulk to the desired accuracy and, at the same time, adhere
to the limits of accuracy specified. Manufacture of
components under such conditions is called interchangeable
manufacture.
97
 Principle of interchangeability
• When interchangeable manufacture is adopted, any one
component selected at random should assemble with any
other arbitrarily chosen mating component. In order to
assemble with a predetermined fit, the dimensions of the
components must be confined within the permissible
tolerance limits.
• By interchangeable assembly, we mean that identical
components, manufactured by different operators, using
different machine tools and under different environmental
conditions, can be assembled and replaced without any
further modification during the assembly stage and without
affecting the functioning of the component when assembled.
• Production on an interchangeable basis results in an increased
productivity with a corresponding reduction in manufacturing
cost. 98
 Principle of interchangeability
• Modern manufacturing techniques that complement mass production of
identical parts facilitating interchangeability of components have been
developed.
• When components are produced in bulk, unless they are interchangeable,
the purpose of mass production is not fulfilled.
• Highlights:
• Any one component selected at random should assemble with any other
arbitrarily chosen mating component.

• Condition Identical components, manufactured by different operators,

using different machine tools and under different environmental
conditions, can be assembled and replaced without any further
modification during the assembly, without affecting the functioning of the
component when assembled.
99
 Principle of interchangeability - Example
• consider the assembly of a shaft and a part with a hole.
• The two mating parts are produced in bulk, say 1000 each. By
interchangeable assembly any shaft chosen randomly should assemble
with any part with a hole selected at random, providing the desired fit.

• Another major advantage of interchangeability is the ease with which

replacement of defective or worn-out parts is carried out, resulting in
reduced maintenance cost.
• In addition, the operator, by performing the same limited number of
operations, becomes a specialist in that work.
• By achieving specialization in labour, there will be a considerable
reduction in manufacturing and assembly time and enhancement in
quality. Interchangeable manufacture increases productivity and reduces
production and time costs.
• .

100
 Principle of interchangeability
• to achieve interchangeability, certain standards need to be followed,
based on which interchangeability can be categorized into two types—
universal interchangeability and local interchangeability.
• When the parts that are manufactured at different locations are randomly
chosen for assembly, it is known as universal interchangeability.
• To achieve universal interchangeability, it is desirable that common
standards be followed by all and the standards used at various
manufacturing locations be traceable to international standards.
• When the parts that are manufactured at the same manufacturing unit
are randomly drawn for assembly, it is referred to as local
interchangeability. In this case, local standards are followed, which in turn
should be traceable to international standards, as this becomes necessary
to obtain the spares from any other source.

101
 interchangeability
• Any one component selected at random should assemble with any
other arbitrarily chosen mating component.

• Condition:

• Identical components, manufactured by different operators, using

different machine tools and under different environmental
conditions, can be assembled and replaced without any further
modification during the assembly, without affecting the functioning
of the component when assembled.

102
 Selective Assembly Approach
• Today’s consumers desire products that are of good quality and, at the
same time, reliable and available at attractive prices.

• Further, in order to achieve interchangeability, it is not economical to

manufacture parts to a high degree of accuracy.

• It is equally important to produce the part economically and, at the same

time, maintain the quality of the product for trouble-free operation.

• Sometimes, for instance, if a part of minimum limit is assembled with a

mating part of maximum limit, the fit obtained may not fully satisfy the
functional requirements of the assembly.

103
 Selective Assembly Approach
• The reason may be attributed to the issues of accuracy and uniformity that
may not be satisfied by the certainty of the fits given under a fully
interchangeable system.

• It should be realized that, in practice, complete interchangeability is not

always feasible; instead, selective assembly approach can be employed.

• Attaining complete interchangeability in these cases involves some extra

cost in inspection and material handling, as selective assembly approach is
employed wherein the parts are manufactured to wider tolerances.

• In selectively assembly, despite being manufactured to rather wide

tolerances, the parts fit and function as if they were precisely
manufactured in a precision laboratory to very close tolerances.
104
• In selective assembly the parts produced are classified into groups
according to their size / dimensions by automatic gauging.

• Both the mating parts are segregated according to their sizes, and
matched with the groups of mating parts are assembled.

• This ensures protection and elimination of defective assemblies.

• Assay. costs are reduced, as the parts are produced with wider tolerances.

105
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM METAL CONDITIONS

• Consider a shaft having a

dimension of 40 ± 0.05 mm and
Hole having a dimension of 45 ±
0.05 mm.

• For Shaft Maximum metal limit

(MML) = 40.05 mm
• Least metal limit (LML) = 39.95
mm
• For Hole
• Maximum metal limit (MML) =
44.95 mm
• Least metal limit (LML) = 45.05
mm
106
Keywords

107
 Inspection Gauges, Types of Gauges,
Taylor’s Principle, Gauge Design
• Content

Reference :- ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS by N.V.

RAGHAVENDRA – OXFORD University Press
108
 Classification of Gauges
• 1. Plain gauges • (d) According to their design:
• (a) According to their type: • (i) Single- and double-limit
• (i) Standard gauges gauges
• (ii) Limit gauges • (ii) Single- and double-ended
• (b) According to their purpose: gauges
• (i) Workshop
• (iii) Fixed and adjustable gauges
• (ii) Inspection
• (iii) Reference, or master, or control • 2. Adjustable-type gap gauges
gauges • 3. Miscellaneous gauges
• (c) According to the form of the tested • (a) Combined-limit gauges
surface:
• (i) Plug gauges for checking holes • (b) Taper gauges
• (ii) Snap and ring gauges for checking • (c) Position gauges
shafts
• (d) Receiver gauges
• (e) Contour gauges
• (f) Profile gauges 109
 limit gauge
• A limit gauge is not a measuring gauge. Just they are
used as inspecting gauges.
• This gives the information about the products which
may be either within the prescribed limit or not.
• Using limit gauges report, the control chart of P and C
chart are drawn .
• This procedure is mostly performed by QC department
of each and every industry.
• Limit gauges are mainly used for cylindrical holes of
identical components with large number in mass
production.
110
 Purpose of Using Limit Gauges
• Components are manufactured as per the specified tolerance
limit.
• The dimension of each component should be within the upper
and lower limit.
• If the dimensions are not within the limit, the component
rejected.
• If we use any measuring instrument to check these dimensions,
it will consume more time.
• Still we are not interested in knowing the amount error in
dimensions.
• It is just whether the size of component is within the prescribed
limits or not.
• For this purpose we can make use of gauges known as limit
gauges. 111
 Types
• Plug gauge
• Ring gauge
• Snap gauge

112
Plug Gauges
• The end are hardened and accurately finished by grinding.
• One end is GO end and other end is NOGO end.
• In plug gauge, the GO end will be equal to the lower limit size
of the hole and the NOGO end will be equal to the upper limit
size of the hole.

• If the size of the hole is within the limits, the GO should go

inside the hole and NOGO end should not go.

• If the GO end does not go, the hole is under size and also if
NOGO end goes, the hole is over size.

• Hence the components are rejected in both cases. 113

 RING GAUGES

• Ring gauges are mainly used for checking the diameter of shafts having a
central hole.
• The hole is accurately finished by grinding and hardening process.
• The periphery of the ring is knurled to give more grips while handling the
gauges.
• Two ring gauges are made separately to check the shaft such as
• GO ring gauge and
• NOGO ring gauge
• The hole of GO ring gauge is made to upper limit size of the shaft.
• NOGO for the lower limit size of the shaft.
• To identify the NOGO ring gauges easily, a red mark or a small groove cut
on its periphery.

114
 Snap Gauges
✓ Snap gauges are used for
checking external dimensions.

They are also called gap gauges

The GO anvil is made to lower

limit and NOGO anvil made to
upper limit of the shaft.

The different types of snap

gauges are:
• Double ended snap gauge
• Progressive snap gauge
• Adjustable snap gauge
115
 Taylor’s Principle in the Design of
Limit Gauges
• It states that GO gauge should check all related dimensions.
Simultaneously, NOGO gauge should check only one dimension at a
time.
• According to Taylor “GO” and “NOGO” limit gauges should be
designed to determine the maximum and minimum metal limits.
• Go limit gauge: A GO gauge corresponds to maximum metal
condition. For example upper limit of a shaft or lower limit of a
hole.
• The “GO” snap gauge corresponds to upper limit of the shaft, while
the “GO” plug gauge corresponds to lower limit of the hole.
• The “GO” gauges should check all the possible elements of
dimensions at a time (roundness, location size etc).
• A GO plug gauge must be of corresponding mating section and
preferably to the full length of the hole so that straightness of the
hole can be checked.
116
• NO GO limit gauge:
– A NOGO gauge corresponds to minimum metal
condition. For example, lower limit of a shaft and
the upper limit of a hole. It should check only one
feature of the component at a time. The NOGO
snap gauge corresponds to lower limit while the
NOGO plug gauge corresponds to upper limit.

117
 Guidelines for Gauge Design
1. The form of GO gauges should be a replica of the
form of the opposed (mating) parts.
2. GO gauges enable several related dimensions to
be checked simultaneously and hence are termed
complex gauges.
3. During inspection, GO gauges must always be put
into conditions of maximum impassability.
4. NOT GO gauges check a single element of feature
at a time.
5. In inspection, NOT GO gauges must always be put
into conditions of maximum passability.

118
119
120
121
122
 Introduction to Comparators ,
Mechanical(Sigma), Electrical,
Pneumatic comparator

Reference :- ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS by N.V.

RAGHAVENDRA – OXFORD University Press 123
 Comparators
• A comparator is a precision instrument used for comparing the
dimensions of a workpiece with a working standard or master setting
which represents the basic size.

• A comparator works on the principle of relative measurement. It gives

only dimensional differences in relation to a basic dimension or
master setting.

• It gives only dimensional differences in relation to a basic dimension

or master setting.

• Comparators are generally used for linear measurements, and the

various comparators currently available basically differ in their
methods of amplifying and recording the variations measured.

Reference :- ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS by N.V.

RAGHAVENDRA – OXFORD University Press 124
 Why comparator is required ?
• In case of mass production, the identical component
parts are produced on a very large scale.
• It is very difficult, expensive and may not be feasible to
measure the dimensions of all components with use of
vernier caliper, micrometer etc.
• To check dimensional variation from the standard or
basic dimension of part.
• Comparing manufactured part to the master (standard)
part.
• The comparator requires little skill for the operator,
eliminates human element for taking measurement and
gives quick and highly consistent results. 125
 Comparators - Functional requirements
• It should not only provide a high degree of accuracy and
precision but also be convenient for use.

• It should withstand the rough and tough operating

environment on the shop floor and also have good
sensitivity to detect minute changes in the parameter being
measured.

• A comparator should have a high degree of accuracy and

precision. We can safely say that in general, comparison
measurement provides better accuracy and precision than
direct measurement.

• In direct measurement, precision is dependent on the least

count of the scale and the means for reading it.
126
 Comparators - Functional requirements
• In comparison measurement, it is dependent on the least count of the
standard and the means for comparing Accuracy, in contrast, is
dependent on other factors, geometrical considerations being the most
important of them.

• Direct measurement instruments such as vernier caliper and micrometer

have the standard built into it, with the result that measurement is done
by the displacement method.

• It is the relationship between the distance displaced and a standard that

constitutes the measurement.

• On the other hand, comparison measurement uses the interchange

method for measurement.

• In this method, both ends of the unknown feature are compared with
both ends of the standard at the same time. 127
Basic Principle
Initially, the comparator is
adjusted to zero on its dial with a
standard job in position.

The reading H1 is taken with the

help of a plunger.

Then the standard job is replaced

by the work-piece to be checked
and the reading H2 is taken.

If H1and H2 are different, then

the change in the dimension will
be shown on the dial of the
comparator.

128
 Applications of comparators :
• The comparators are used to check the parts in mass
production at a very fast rate.

• They are used to inspect newly purchased gauges.

• They are worked as a laboratory standards from which

working or inspection gauges are set and correlated.

• They are used as final inspection gauges in selective assembly

of parts where parts are graded in three groups depending
upon their tolerance.

• They are used for checking parts received form outside

sources. 129
 Classification of comparators
1. Mechanical comparators 5) Fluid Displacement
• Dial Indicator Comparators
• Reed Type comparator 6) Projection Comparators
• Sigma Comparator* 7) Multi check Comparators
• Johansson Mikrokator 8) Automatic Gauging
2. Mechanical Optical 9) Electro Mechanical
Comparators Comparators
• Optical Lever 10) High Sensitive
• Zeiss Optimeter Calibration Comparators
• Zeiss Ultra Optimeter •Brookes Level Comparators
• Zeiss Optotest Eden-Rolt Millionth
Comparators Comparators
3. Electrical* and
Electronics Comparators
4. Pneumatic Comparators* 130
Mechanical comparators – Sigma Comparators

• About:
• It is a simple but original mechanical
comparator developed by the Sigma
Instrument Company, USA.
• Principle:
• A linear displacement of a plunger is
translated into the movement of a pointer
over a calibrated scale.

131
Construction details
The plunger is the sensing element that is in
contact with the work part/ surface is going to
be measure.
The plunger is direct contact with the surface
whose surface is going to be measure.
Then we have a slit washer over here , plunger
is having a groove and groove have direct
contact with knife edge and knife edge is direct
contact with plunger.
There is an adjusting screw by the help of
height plunger and keep the knife edge in
contact with block, here in movable block.

Here we have two blocks – fixed and movable

block.
Both the block are connected with the help of
strip which is parallel and perpendicular.

This cross strip is made up of elastic Material

i.e. When the force is applied the strip will get
deformed and when the strip is removed the
strip will back to the original position. 132
Construction details
Between the fixed and knife edge there is a
small distance of x.
The strip which is connected fixed and moved
along with a movable arm is connected and it
in the shape of y i.e. y arm of the length.
The y arm is connected and contact the drum
which is circular in shape and the pulley radius
(r) .
When the y arm is moving it would be rotating
in drum at the same time the drum is
connected to the pointer.
The pointer will give the deflection of the
scale.

Functional details.
When the plunger is moving down it depends
on the surface.
Here the knife edge is in contact and also tries
to move down, when ir moves down it exists
the force on the strip, so small amount of
moving block will tilt the moving block,
because of strip is in the form of + sign i.e.
133 is
the elastic strip.
Functional details.

Along with the fixed block and the movable

block would be move in the downward
direction through this deflection is transferred
to the y arm, y arm has been moved from
original position and driven pulley is rotated
and connected to the pointer.
Since it is a mechanical device, here various
elements and a small deflection at of the
surface which is deflected at the plunger would
be transfer the huge amount of deflection on
the pointer is called magnification.

magnification details.

L – Length of the Y arm.

l – length of the pointer
x – Distance b/w fixed block and the knife edge
R – Drum pulley radius 134
Sigma Comparators – Real Picture

135
 Advantages :
(l) They are cheaper compared to other types of
comparators.
(2) They do not require any external electrical
energy.
(3) They are normally robust, compact and easy to
handle.
(4) Normally, they have a linear scale.
(5) Mechanical comparators are suitable for
ordinary workshop conditions and being portable
can be issued from a store.

136
 Disadvantages :
(1) Due to more moving parts, the friction is
more and subsequently less accuracy obtained.
(2) The accuracy of this comparator is
considerably reduced due to backlash.
(3) Less sensitive due to inertia of moving parts.
(4) Errors due to parallax is possible as moving
pointer moves over a fixed scale.
(5) The range of instrument is limited as pointer
moves over a fixed scale
(6) They have a less magnification compared to
optical comparators.
137
 Electrical comparators
• An electronic comparator, can
achieve an exceptionally high
magnification of the order of 10^5:1
quite easily.

• the linear movement of the plunger

into electrical signals and these
signals further calibrated with the
help of Galvanometer on to the
graduated scale.

• It is basically works on the principle

of mutual inductance.

138
 Electrical comparators
• Plunger which is direct contact with
the flat surface whose surface/
flatness is being measured.
• Because of the waviness of the
surface the plunger will try to move
up and down.
• Working:
• Here the system is having primary
winding/ primary coil is which is
given an AC input, when the primary
coil is energinersied the core is direct
contact with the plunger and moves
the core also reciprocated inside the
primary winding

139
 Electrical comparators
• There is no contact between primary
winding and the coil, it means that
the core is moving inside hollow
cylinder and winding, over the
hollow cylinder and there is a gap
between core and hollow cylinder.
• When the supply is given to the
primary winding the magnetic field is
generated with the help of primary
winding it would be cut in each
proposition.
• The voltage would be induced in
both the secondary coil S1,S2, so the
output would be zero, if the core is it
in the central position.

140
 Electrical comparators
• The core is moving exactly, left it
would be cutting the magnetic
field move of the magnetic field
induced in s1 and less in s2, so we
can get the output reading.
• If the core is moving right, due to
the primary winding move
magnetic field, it is cutting more
and more magnetic field induced
in S1,S2 is greater than the S1. the
difference is induction the surface
is flat or not.
• If the output is zero. The surface is
flat. If we are getting some
amount of reading the surface is
not flat. 141
Electrical Comparators – Real Picture

142
 Pneumatic comparators
• Pneumatic comparators use air as a means of
measurement.
• The basic principle involved The change in
pressure between nozzle and work piece is
utilized to measure the deviation of the
dimension being measured from the standard
dimension.

143
 Parts of Pneumatic Comparator:-
• Compressor:- inside the
compressed air
• Filter :- dust/ moist separator
• Orifice :- small opening
through which the air will
passed.
• Tank:- water
• Manometer:-
• Gauging head :- to check the
job/wp

144
Compressed air would be passed
through the filter, and some amount of
air would go inside dip tube, The height
would be adjusted.

After the air will be passing through the

dip tube as well as passing through the
orifice, so that the air passing through
the orifice it would be going in to the
gauging head and to reciprocated the
workpiece of job along gauging head.

If the internal hole is incorrect not

exactly flat if there are some amount of
waviness present inside the job, it
happens the back pressure is created
and when the backpressure is created at
that time, the air which is passing
through the gauging head. Now it return
back and it will goes back to the
manometer and it will try to push water
inside manometer.

145
Initial settings:
Calibration needs to done height of
the water tube and manometer
needs to adjusted and the same
level, it means the surface is exactly
flat in that case the level of the tank
and manometer both are same.

The moment some waviness and

some irregularities some back
pressure is created and due to the
back pressure the water inside the
manometer falls and to getting the
height difference (delta H). Water
level in the tank and water level in
the manometer .

More the level difference the more

roughness is present in the surface.

146
Pneumatic Comparators – Real Picture

147
 Pneumatic comparators

advantages Dis advantages

1. Very high magnification
2. Less friction, wear and
inertia
3. Less measuring pressure
4. Determines ovality and
taperness of circular bores
1. Scale is generally not
uniform
2. Requires compressor and
accurate pressure regulator
3. Non portable
4. Less sensitivity

Reference :- ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS by N.V. RAGHAVENDRA –

OXFORD University Press 148