From the Laboratory for the Theory of Gymnastics, University of

Copenhagen.

Studies on the Conducting Properties of the

Human Skin to Direct Current.
BY
THOMAS ROSENDAL.
Received 12 October 1942.

Introduction.
GIILIEMEISSTER’S monograph (1928) on the conducting proper-
ties of the skin t o direct current (d. c.) and alternating current
(a. c.), and XCHAEPKR’S book on electroph ysiology (1940) contain
comprehensive descriptions of the investigations on this problem.
The results are briefly as follows.
The d. c.-resistance decreases after conduction of a constant
current for some time through the skin and also with increasing
voltage. When the voltage is decreased subsequently, the re-
sistance does not increase t o the initial value but t o a lower
value (hysteresis). The resistance to anodic conduction is different
from t h a t t o cathodic conductionl. I n the case of short-lasting
current impulses, the skin shows properties similar t o a polari-
zation cell or a shunted condenser. The a. c.-resistance of the skin
is less than its d. c.-resistance, decreasing with increasing fre-
quency of the a. e. -- Pinally, the skin gives rise t o a phase shift
hetween alternating voltage and -current (voltage after cur-
rent) in the same way as a polarization cell or a condenser. The
subcutaneous and internal tissue of the human organism con-
ducts a galvanic current alrnost as a low-ohmic resistance.
As the cause of the above mentioned conducting properties, GIL-
DEMEISTER (1928) and his school assume polarization of the skin due

Anodic or cathodic conduction is defined a s a d. c.-conduction through t h e

respective part of the skin with the anode or the cathode, respectively, as dif-
ferent electrode. The indifferent electrode is immersed into a n electrolyte bath
into which also it large part of the skin, e. g. one arm, is immersed.
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES OF THE HUMAN SHIN. 131
t o different ion mobility in the cells and the cell membranes with an
accumulation of ions on the stratum corneum and, especially, on the
cell membranes in the stratum germinativum. The d. c.-resistance of
the skin is therefore an apparent resistance, determined by the state
of permeability of the cell membranes and varying with their permea-
bility.
MUNK (1873) and GARTNER(1882) explained the decrease in d. c.-
resistance of the skin depending on the time of conduction by an in-
crease in electrolyte content of the skin due to electro-endosmosis.
GILDEMEISTER (1928), however, assumed that this effect must be due
to a reversible increase in the membrane permeability of the living
cell layers of the stratum germinativum accompanied by a decrease
in skin polarization. EBBECKE (1921, 22, and 23) proposed the same
explanation for the decrease in d. c.-resistance after mechanical treat-
ment of the skin and aft8erconduction of d. c. through the skin (ER-
BECKE’S mechanical and galvanical react>ion); the decrease in d. G . -
resistance during the psycho-galvanical reflex should be due to a de-
crease in polarization on the surface of the sweat glands (GILDE-
MEISTER 1915). A s a basis for these assumptions, GILDEMEISTER point-
ed out that a sirnultaneous determination of the d. c.- and the a. c.-
rcsistctnce of the skin (at frequencies above 840 cycles), before and
after conduction of (1. c. through the skin, showed a decrease in the
d. c.-resistance, only (GALLER1912, UILUEMEISTER 1915, GILDE-
NEISTICR and KAUFHOLD 1920). Since the a. c.-resistance which GIL-
1)EMEISTER regards as the real resistance of the skin, determined by
its elect,rolyte content, remained constant after d. c.-conduction, it
must be considered impossible that a change in electrolyte content of
the skin occurred in the above described case. MVNK’Sand GXRTNER’S
interpretation is thereby considered disproved.
However, after d. c.-conduction through the skin, EINTHOVEN and
BIJTEL (1923) actually proved the existence of a decrease in the a. c.-
resistance of the skin a t frequencies below 840 cycles, but not a t higher
frequencies. The same observations were made by ROSENUAL (1940)
after moistening of the stratum corneuni with an electrolyte. These
results may be explained by the fact that the a. c.-resistance of the
skin at frequencies above 500--1,000 cycles is almost completely ca-
pacitive and is independent of a change in the electrolyte content. The
a. c.-resistance a t frequencies below 500-1,000 cycles, however, has
both a capacitive and an ohmic component which latter decreases
with increasing electrolyte content of the skin. It must, further, be
emphasized that GILDEMEISTER’S high-frequency a. c.-resistance (5,000
cycles) of the skin in series with the internal tissue is predominantly
due to the resistance of the internal tissue which is independent of
the electrolyte content of the skin, while the low-frequency a. c.-re-
sistance mainly originates froni the skin. A change in the electrolyte
content of the skin will therefore not be registered by a determination
of the a. c.-resistance a t frequencies above 500-1,000 cycles (GILDE-
MEISTER and his school), but exclusively by a determination of the
low-frequency a. c.-resistance. Since, however, the last-mentioned re-
132 THOMAS ROBENDAL.

sistance shows a decrease after conduction of d. c. and after moist-

ening wikh electrolyte (EINTHOVEN and HIJTEL, R O S E I ~ A L MUNK’S
),
and G ~ R T N E Rpreviously
’S mentioned explanation is further supported
and GILDEMEISTER’S objection against i t is invalidated.
As mentioned above, GILDENEISTEK located the electric resistance
of the skin t o the stratum corneum and especially to all cell layers in
the stratum germinativum, while REIN (1930) thought it localized to
the stratum lucidum. LEWISand ZOTTERMAN(1927) demonstrated
t h a t the decrease in d. c.-resistance of the skin in E n m c m ’ s gal+-anic
reaction must be caused by a lesion of the stratum corneum and that
the same decrease could he produced by pricking this layer with a
needle. These investigations make a localization of t,he d. c.-resistance
of the skin t o t h e stratum ccmieuni probahle. The sanie localization
was found by ROSEXDAL (1940) in the case of the a. c.-rcsistaiice a t
frequencies betw-eeri 30 a,nd 20,000 cycles1.
I n view of t h e differing interpretations given in the literature
concerning tlic cause of t,he decrease in skin resistance after eon-
tluction of d. c. arid t,he lncaliza,tion of t h e d. c.-resist~ancei n
t h e skin, n niiniher of n e n experiments were per€ornied which
niigtit elucitlate t’his qiicstion.

iwetimi.
The &ctrotles. The most suit,able electrodes were cliosen in agree-
ment with the conditions stated by GILLXWICISTEE(1915) and on the
basis of soiiie investigations coriccrning the d. c.-resistance as a func-
tion of e. in.f. o f t h e following electrode-electrolyte systems. The d. c..-
resistaricc of the systems was deterniined ut different potentials in a
Wheatstom bridge with a n error of ahout 1 per cent.
1) Mercury-calomel electrode.
a) &rcury-calomel electrode with an arca of 1 . 7 cni2 arid a thick-
ness of the calomel layer of 3 mm.
b) Mercury-calomel paste electrode with a n area of 1 . 7 emz a i d a
thickness of the mercury-calomel paste - saturated with KC1-soh-
tion - of 1 cm. The paste was prepared by grinding in a mortar 2 cc
mercury, 5 g of calomel and 3 cc saturated KC1-solution.
c) Platinum-mercury-calomel electrode with a n area of 2 cmz. The
electrode was prepared as described by BISKUPSKI (1938).
Contact between two of the above described electrodes was ob-
tained by means of a glass tube containing saturated KC1-solution
with 2 per cent agar. The resistance of this tube amounted t o about
200 ohms.
2) Silver-silver chloride electrode.
a) Platinum-silver-silver chloride electrode with a n area of n cmZ
prepared
__ -
according t o BROWN(1934).
- ___
As regards the experimental technique and a number of other points con-
cerning the conducting properties of the skin and the internal tissue t o n. c., cf.
ROSEKDAL (1940).
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES O F THE H U M A N S K I N . 133
b) Silver-silver chloride electrode coiisisting of a silver plate 15 x
1 x 0.1 em, which was wound as a helix, 1 cm high and 2-2.5 clli in
diameter. The silver helix was fastened to a silver wire, 5 cni long, and
was then covered with silver chloride by electrolysis of a N HC1-
solution during 10-12 hours a t a current of 10 milliamperes. The
silver helix was then mounted iii a cylindrical ebonite vessel with a
hasis of 7 cni2 and a height of 2 em. The lead went through the bottom
of the vessel. Finally, the silver helix was covered by saturated KC1
solution with 2-3 per cent agar.
Three separate sets of qilver-silver chloride electrodes were investig-
ated. Their resistance was determined for the conduction in both di-
rections (marked in the table: I, 11) after immersion of the electrodes
into a saturated KC1-solution.
Table 1 shows the resistances of the abore mentioned electrode-
electrolyte systems measured a t various potentials and, furthermore,
the potential of the systems themselves.
Table 1.
Resistance values in ohms to direct voltuges between 1.32 a n d 1940

- millivolts.
-=
-~
t'lati-
Mer- Pilver- Silver- Silver- TI1
Mer- num
cury mrr- Plati- AgCl ,4g;C1 BgCl 10 days
Voltage cal- cury num I I1 111 later
omel
in mV. omel silver
paste cal- AgCl
omel - - - -
elec- I I1 I I1 I I1
- -- trode
---- - -
1.32 420
6.65 3840 420 6.4 5.4 16 11 11 9
13.2 3840 422 5.e 5.4 4.6 5 14 12 14 8
64.5 3 8 4 2 419 5.3
113 3850 419 5.3 4.6 5 9 8
57 1 5.2 5 4.4 9 8
1940
~.
5.3 4.4
-
~
9 8
-

Voltage I
in mV 1
of the
system
itself 0.4 I 0.3 1 ~ 1.5

Table 1 shows the high potential-independent resistance of the ca-

0.4 1
~

lomel electrodes. Their high resistance must be ascribed to the calomel

layer and therefore these electrodes are less suited for resistance mea-
surements on the skin. The resistance of the platinum-mercury calo-
mel paste electrodes is also potential-independent, but somewhat
lower, The resistance of the platinum-mercury-calomel electrodes is
to a great extent dependent on the voltage. Hence, this electrode -
134 THOMAS ROSENDAL.

in the form described by BISKUPSKI (1938) - cannot be considered

unpolarizable and is, therefore, unsuitable for biological measure-
ments. Silver-silver chloride electrodes show a very low resistance in
both current directions and they are almost potential-independent.
Consequently, these electrodes must be regarded as best suited for
resistance determinations on the skin. I n the course of the investiga-
tions, the electrodes have been tested repeatedly; resistance and volt-
age of the system itself were found to be constant and of the magni-
tude given in the table. As the resistance of the object of measure-
ments - viz. the skin - has been above 1,000 ohms in almost all
experiments, and since the voltages applied were above 100 milli-
volts, the influence of the electrodes upon the determination of the
resistance of the object was less than 1 per cent.
The measurements. Part of the experiments concerning the con-
ducting properties of the skin to direct current were performed as
current determinations; the error involved was less than 1 per cent in
a circuit consisting of a known source of e. m. f., a galvanometer, and
the object of measurements. The object i n the present case was a sil-
ver-silver chloride electrode in an ebonite cylinder (7 cm2) - l per
cent KC1-solution or saturated KCI-solution as contact electrolyte -
the skin on the volar side of a person’s forearm which rests upon the
electrode - the internal tissue of the same arm, the thorax, and the
other arm - and, finally, the skin of the arm which is immersed until
the elbow into a vessel containing 1 per cent KC1-solution into which
the other silver-silver chloride electrode is also immersed. Since the
immersed region of the skin is of a far larger area than the region
which is in contact with one of the polarization-free electrodes (7 a n 2 ) ,
the resistance of the first mentioned will be very low. The resistance
of the object of measurements will therefore almost exclusively be
determined by the resistance of the 7 cm2 of skin, since the resistance
of the electrode and of the contact electrolyte can be disregarded. In
agreement with this fact, most experiments showed a resistance of
the object of measurements higher than 10,000 ohms a t 2 volts. After
removal of the stratum corneum of the 7 emz of skin - where the skin
resistance is located - the same object of measurements showed a
resistance of about 600 ohms a t 2 volts. The last mentioned resistance,
which is exclusively that of the internal tissue and of the immersed
area of the skin, is further independent of potential, variations of the
direction of current,and of the time of conduction. Therefore, the present
method enables us t o measure the d. c.-resistance of a known skin area.
I n some experiments, the object of measurenients was 2 x 7 cmZ
skin area on the volar side of a forearm resting on 2 silver-silver chlo-
ride electrodes a t a distance of about 5 em, connected by the internal
tissue of the forearm, the resistance of which is 200-300 ohms. The
resistance of this object was measured with an error of less than 1
per cent in a Wheatstone bridge.
When studying the time dependence of the current, the d. c . was
registered by means of an electrostatic oscillograph (resonance period
1/3,000 see) and a d. c.-amplifier (BUCHTHAL and NIELSEN1936).
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES O F THE HUMAN SKIN. 135
In another series of experiments, the d. c. was overlaid by a. c.
with a frequency of 200 cycles. The a. c.-amplitude was registered as
a function of time by means of an oscillograph and a d. c.-amplifier
and was compared with the amplitude of a. c. of the same frequency
over a known ohmic resistance. Further, an a. c. with a frequency
of 1,000 cycles was overlaid by the d. c. through the above mentioned
object of measurements. By means of two d. c.-amplifiers, the alter-
nating current and -voltage were then via an electronic switch (Phi-
lips) introduced into a cathode beam oscillograph where the standing
picture was photographed. The variation with time of the current
amplitude was registered and the phase shift relative to the constant
amplitude of the alternating voltage was determined.

Experimental results.
1) Variations from day to day, individual and regional variations
of the skin resistance to direct current.
In order t o elucidate t h e individual and regional variations
of t h e skin resistance, t h e d. c.-resistance t o anodic conduction
a t 2 volts was determined on t h e volar side of t h e forearm over
a period of 6 days on t h e same region of the skin. It was further-
more determined on 6 different persons and on different regions
of t h e same person. The resistance of 7 cms of t h e skin at 2 volts
and ni KC1-solution as contact electrolyte varies between
70 x lo3 a n d 485 x lo3 ohms on one person and between 40 x
103 and 200 x lo3 ohms on t h e other.
I n different individuals t h e resistance of 7 cm2 of the skin at
2 volts a n d 1 per cent KC1-solution as contact electrolyte varied
between 5 x lo3 and 2.50 >( 103 ohms.
The regional variation is shown in table 2.
Table 2.
R e g i o n a l variation of { h e d . c.-resistunce in ohms of 7 cm2 of the
s k i n at 2 tolts and 1 per cent KCI-solution as contact electrolyte.

1 K. W. 8 21 years
left arm
i
I Proximal
t o wrist
Middle of
forearm
Near t h e
elbow
Upper arm
I

I Resistance in ohms at
2 Volts . . . . . ~ 2200 1 82000 )I 160000 I 9000 1
The experiments show t h e great difference in t h e d. c.-re-
sistance of t h e skin at 2 volts on t h e same person from day t o
d a y and on different regions, and moreover t h e great individual
136 THOMAS KOSENDAL.

variations. The variations in the d. c.-resistance of the skin must,

be ascribed to variations in the stratum corneum (cf. section 2)
of different persons, of the different regions, and of the same
region from day t o (lay.
These variations in the skin-resistance make it necessary t h a t
studies on the interdependence of skin resistance and voltage,
direction of current, and properties of the contact electrolyte
are performed on the same region of the skin and are compared
only with resistance values determined in the same experiment.

2 ) Localizatiori of the d . c.-rrsistance.

I n recent investigations (ROSENUAT, 1940) it was shown t h a t
the a. c.-resistance of the skin a t frequencies betwyeen 30 and
20,000 cycles is exclusively located in the stratum corneum. This
was made evident by the decrease in a. c.-resistance of the skin
t o 0 ohm after abrasion of the skin with emery paper. Histolog-
ical investigations of the abraded skin region showed further
t h a t the lesion was only located t o the stratum corneum and
not t o the stratum germinativum.
I n the following experiments, the d. c.-resistance was deter-
mined before and after abrading the skin with emery paper in
the same way as in the above mentioned a. c.-experiments. The
lesion is a maceration of the stratum corneuni only, without in-
juring the corium and without bleedings. The depth of the lesion
has not in this case been determined microscopically; as earlier
investigations (ROSENDAL 1940) had shown that the abrasion
here applied only injured the stratum corneum, i t is justified t o
locate the present lesions to the same layer. Table 3 contains the
figures obtained on two persons.
These experiments illustrate the decrease in d. c.-resistance
after lesion of the stratum corneum t o a value which is of the
same order of magnitude as that found recently for the a. c.-
resistance of a corresponding object (ROSENDAL 1940).
I n agreement with LEWISand ZOTTERMAN(19271, it, is thus
shown t h a t the d. c.-resistance of the skin as well as its a. c.-resist-
rmce are located cxclusiwely in. the stratum c o r n e u m , while the
stratum germinativum conducts a n electric current as does the
internal tissue. Moreover, the resistance of the internal tissue,
either between two skin areas or from one skin area t o the other
arm or leg immersed into KC1-solution, is independent of the
voltage and of the direction of current. As this resistance is also
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES O F T H E HUMAN S P I N . 13i

TIIhlC 5.
D. c.-resistance in ohms o f 2 x 7 cm2 o f the s k i n before a n d a f t e r
abrasion o/ e s k i n with emery paper.
(1 per cent KC ;ohtion as contact electrolyte.)
I
&fore S f t e r abrasion I
abrasion
Direction
r,
I est-person of Resistance in ohms at
Resistance ciirrc.iit - - ~

in ohms at 0.154 0.224 1.14 1.5 2

2 volts volts volts volts volts volts
- --
A . s. y 1 614 608 5SS 588 5so
24 years old 115 500
right forearm II 608 608 5ss 592 330
T. R. 8 I 257 354 230 229
34 years old 15 000
left forearni It 220 21s 219 , 218

independent of the kind and of the concentration of the contact

electrolyte, and as i t is small compared with the resistance of the
skin, it may be disr,egarded in the following experiments.

3 ) Dependence of the d . c.-resistun,ce on the moistening of the skiiz

with electrolyte.
The studies on the influence of moistening of the stratum
corneum either with 1 per cent KC1-solution or with saturated
KCl-solution were performed on 10 persons of both sexes. The
d. c.-resistance was measured a t different potentials between
0 . 1 2 9 and 2 volts. The region investigated was the volar side of
the persons’ forearm. The resistance was measured during up t o
60 min. of anodic and cathodic conduction. I n some experiments,
the direction of current was reversed after 1min. or after 2 min.; in
other experiments, after 5-10 sec or after 2 min., and the current
was then interrupted for 5 min. in between every determination.
All experiments revealed a very marked decrease in d. c.-re-
sistance of the skin, most pronounced after the first 10 minutes
of moistening. After the lapse of 30 min., the resistunnce approxz-
mates a constant value which i s 5 to 10 times as low as the initial
vulue and which corresponds t o a saturation of the stratum cor-
neum with electrolyte. The decrease in resistance is greatest
after moistening of the skin with saturated KC1-solution. Some
curves of resistance decrease or current increase, respectively,
are given in fig. 1.
138 THOMAS ROSENDAL.

.dObrnJ rnA
80 -

90 -

' 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 39

Fig. 1. Dependence of the skin resistance on moistening with electrolyte and

on conduction of d. c. a t 2 volts.
Ordinates: left, resistance in ohms, right, current in mA. Abscissae: Time in min.
Curve I: 2 x 7 cmp of skin area, 1 per cent KC1-solution.
Curve 11: 2 x 7 emz of skin area, saturated HC1-solution.
Curve 111: 2 x 7 cm2 of skin area, 1 per cent KC1-solution.
Curve IV: 7 em2 of skin area, 1 per cent KC1-solution.
Curve 111 was registered after washing of the skin with distilled water, and
should be compared with curve 11. I n curves I, 11, and 111, the skin resistance
t o anodic and cathodic conduction for 1 rnin. was determined, however, only the
first mentioned is plotted in the curves. I n curve IV, the skin resistance was de-
termined after 5 see. of conduction and a t 5 min. intervals in between every de-
termination.

The decrease in skin resistance is presumably due to an in-

crease in the electrolyte content of the stratum corneum. This is
made probable by curve 111 which represents the increasing
resistance obtained after the saturated KC1-solution (experiment-
al curve 11) had been washed off from the stratum corneum with
distilled water. This explanation is further supported by experi-
ments in which the skin was moistened for 20 min with saturated
KCl-solution. I n these experiments, an increase in d. c.-resistance
of the skin a t 2 volts from 10,000 ohms to 18,000 ohms and 19,000
ohms, respectively, in the course of 12-14 min. was found when
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES O F THE HUMAN SKIN. 139
the saturated KC1-solution w-as replaced b y 1 per cent KCl-
solution as contact electrolyte.
When a n e. m. f. above 2-4 volts is applied after the resistance
has become constant, a further decrease in the skin d. c.-resistance
can be observed. The value then obtained approximates the re-
sistance of the internal tissue. However, this decrease niust be
due t o a short-circuiting of the stratum corneum. as will be dis-
cussed in a later section (p. 141).
The experiments described on the foregoing pages indicate
that the d. c.-resistance of the skin depends t o a high degree on
the electrolyte content of the stratum corneum. The investiga-
tions of the interdependence between skin resistance and niag-
nitude of the direct voltage, direction of current, and time of
conduction therefore involve a considerable error, if the nieasure-
ments are performed immediately after the electrode is applied.
This error can be avoided when the measurements are performed
after moistening of the stratum corneum with contact electro-
lyte for 10 niin.

4) T h e deperzdence of the skin resistance o n the direct voltage.

I n order t o elucidate the voltage-dependence of the skin re-
sistance, the d . c.-resistance in ohnis was determined on 7 cm2
of skin on the forearm a t a n e. m. f. varying between 0.129 and
2 . 5 7 volts and with a 1 per cent KC1-solution as contact electro-
lyte (fig. 2). The resistance was determined for anodic conduc-
tion and, subsequently, for cathodic conduction, each during
1 min. The resistance determination was performed immediately
after application of the electrode and was repeated twice a t dif-
ferent voltages in the course of 26 min.
I n the first experiment (group of curves I), the resistance t o
anodic and cathodic conduction decreases with increasing e. m. f.
from 0.129 t o 2 . 5 7 volts, if the resistance is measured immediately
after application of the electrode. However, the decrease i n re-
sistance is no real expression of the voltage-dependence, but must
be ascribed t o a moistening of the stratum corneum with 1 per
cent KCY-solution (cf. p. 137). On repeating the experiment
(group 11)) the resistance is found considerably lower and the
voltage dependence disappears in the case of anodic conduction.
The reproducible interdependence between voltage and resistance
is found after the lapse of 20 min (curves of group 111). With
increasing voltage from 0.129 t o 2.57 volts, the curve indicates
140 THOMAS ROSENDAL.

a5 I 4s 2 1.5 Volts

Fig. 2 . 'I'hc dependence of the resistance on the voltage. 7 cm2 of skin and 1
per cent KC1-solution as contact electrolyte.
Ordinates: resistance in ohms in a logarithmic scale. Abscissae: potential in
\ olts. 0 anodic conduction. 0 cathodlc conduction. The time of the resistance
determination after application of the electrode in min. 1s given above or beneath
the curves.

a n increasing resistance t o anodic conduction from 8,200 ohms

t o 13,000 ohms while the resistance t o cathodic conduction de-
creases t o 4,000 ohms.
The voltage dependence of the ?kin resistance a t higher volt-
age is represented in fig. 3. After moistening of the skin with
saturated KC1-solution for 20 min., the resistance was determined
for anodic and cathodic conduction, during 1 min. each, and a t
potentials between 0 . 2 and 1 2 volts. The voltage dependence
between 0.2 and 2 volts was measured in 3 groups of experi-
ments, in the figure marked I, 11, 111. The voltage dependence
up to 12 volts was determined in 2 series of experiments, marked
I11 and IV.
The increase in resistance in the case of anodic conduction and
the decrease with cathodic conduction are reproducible as long
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES O F THE HUMAN SKIN. 141

xf~30hms

O f 2 4 6 8 I0
- M Volts
Fig. 3. I-oltage tlrperititmce of t h c rcsistarwc of 7 ( ~ 1 1of~ skin moistcmctl for 20
miri with s:ituwtc:l KC1-solution which serves also ns contact elcctrolytc.
Ordinate :: resistance in ohms. Abscissav: potential i n volts. (1 ;Inodic coii-
duction. 0 cathodic conduction. At tlic :trrow, tlic pcrsori felt, pain in thc skin
rcgioii irivchgatod.

as the e. ni. f. does not exceed 2 volts (fig. 3, curves 1, 11, H I ) .

At further increase of the voltage (curve HI), the resistancc
both to anodic and t o cathodic conduction decreases. On repeating
the experiment (curve IV), the incrrase as wcll as the decrease
in resistance alniost ceased, both values now approaching one
another and being almost independent of vojtage. The decrease
in repistance a t e. m. f. above 2 volts is acconipanied by a marked
feeling of pain in the skin, which becomes stronger with increasing
e. m. f. Simultaneously, the respective regions become hyperaemic.
The experinients described above reveal a difference in the
interdependence of skin resistance and voltage for anodic or
cathodic conduction, respectively, a t e. ni. f. up t o 2 volts. Above
2 volts and for both directions of current, the difference dis-
appears, since the skin now behaves like a low- ohmic resistance
of a magnitude which corresponds t o the resistance o€ the in-
ternal tissue. This decrease in resistance is probably due t o a
short-circuiting of the stratum corneuni a t voltages above 2
volts. The feeling of pain and the hyperaemia might be correlat-
142 THOMAS ROSENDAL.

ed with the formation of histamin in the skin (cf. ROSENTHAL

and MINARD'S (1939) studies on histamin formation and feeling
of pain during electrical stiniulation of the skin).
5 ) T h e dependence of the skin resistance on the direction of current.
As shown in fig. 3, the skin resistance is higher during anodic
than during cathodic conduction through the same region of
t h e skin. The difference depends on the voltage and aniounts
t o 350 ohms a t 0.2 volts, t o 2,600 ohms a t 2 volts; a t 10 volts,
however, the difference is 100 ohms, only.
Fig. 4 exhibits further evidence for this observation. The ex-
periments reveal t h a t the resistance to CknOdiC conduction at 2 voks
is about 60-100 p e ~cent higher than the resistance to cathodic
cowbuction, irrespective of the initial direction of conduction,
and illdependent of the duration. The difference is greatest in
the case of saturated KC1-solution as contact electrolyte. This
phenomenon was ohserved on different regions of the forearm
and on 10 different persons.
Fig. 5 shows clearly t h a t this phenomenon just as the other
(1. c.-conduction phenomena must be located in the stratum
.
corneuw The skin resistance t o anodic and cathodic conduction
was determined before and after abrasion of the stratum corneuni
x5ith emery paper, 2nd the difference in resistance was found t o
vanish as soon as the stratum corneuni was injured. The sanie
applies when the stratum corneuni ii; short-circuited by e. m. f.
ahove 2 volts (cf. fig. 3 , p. 141).

Fig. 4. Dependence of the resistance on the direction of conduction a t 2 volts.

7 om2 of skin moistened for 6 min with 1 per cent KC1-solution (I)and with sat-
urated KC1-solution (11) and (111). Experiment 11 begins with anodic conduc-
tion, experiment I11 with cathodic conduction.
Ordinates: left, resistance in ohms; right, current in mA. Abscissae: time in
min. 0 anodic conduction. cathodic conduction.
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES .OF -THE HUMAN SKIN. 143
mA

Ld 2 4 6 8 fO{?fIV 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8min.

f0- - 92

- 0,4

2- - (0

0 " ' " " " ' " " " " ~ " ~ ~ ~ -
144 TIIOMAS ROSENDAL.

the tl. c.-resist,ance with the time of anodic as well as cathodic

conduction. The a. c.-resistance a t 1,000 cycles which is almost
exclusively a capacitive resistance did not shorn- any variations.

6) Investiyatlons of the p I 1 of the contuct electrolyte beforc. t r r d after

conduction o f d . c. throu:yh the skill.
REIN ( I 926) fouricl that anodic conduction of (1. c. through
the skin caused a n increase in pH of the contact electrolyte.
During cathodic conduction, the pH decreases in the case of
males and increases in the case of females. REIN lias eiven no
details concerning the pH of the electrolyte before the experi-
nlent5 or whether application of the electrolyte on the sltin changed
its pH.
In order t o elucidate these phenomena, the pH of the contact
electrolyte was (leterniinetl before and after application of the
electrolyte on the skin and, further, before and after arrotlic and
cathodic conduction of tl. c.
The pH was riiensuretl by ineans of n glass electrode and a
valve voltrneter; the error of this deternunation did not exceed
0 . 0 3 in the pH value. (Only Jena glass was used).
The pH of 4 cc of n 1 per cent IZCII-solution was nieasured be-
€ore and after standing on the volar side of a forearm. The liquid
nitli a mean p€I of 5 . i 3 \+-as kept in a cylindrical vessel with a
contact area of 7 cm2. 14 experinients on 1- persons showed a
rilean decrease in pH of 0.76, t o a mean constant value of pH
4.07, when the pH was measured up t o 45 min aCter standing.
The change in pH is most considerable during the first 20 niin
of standing.
The decrease in pH of the contact electrolyte is not due t o
a n escape of CO, from the skin into the electrolyte; furthermore,
a n increase in pH of the contact electrolyte was found after
cleaning of the skin with water, soap, and alcohol in t w o cases.
These observations might indicate that the decrease in pH after
standing of the electrolyte in contact with the skin is caused by
acid substances liberated from the skin. This explanation is in
agreement with SCHADEand MARCHIONINI’S(1928) investiga-
tions, w-ho found the mean pH of the skin surface t o be 3.78.
These observations indicate that the variations of the pH
after conduction of d. c. through the skin can first be determined
after the pH of the contact electrolyte has reached a constant
value in the course of 20-30 min.
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES OF THE HUMAN SKIN. 3 45
Table 4 contains the pH values before and after anodic and
cathodic conduction of d. c. a t voltages up t o 10 volts through
7 cm2 of skin on the volar side of 4 persons' forearms. The pH
values given in the table were obtained before and after the pH
value of the solution had become constant after standing in
contact with the skin for 20--45 min. At the highest voltage,
the current did not exceed 1.65 mA. The last column of the table
shows the maximum change in pH of every individual experi-
ment after conduction of d. c.
Table 4.

-pH of the electrolyte i n contact with the skin before and a f t e r

= __ =
PH
PH
atter
- conduction of d . c.
~~~~ ~

pH after 5 min of d. c.-couduc-

tionI .
Max-
imum
1
,
Person llectro- iefore 30-45 1 1 change
lyte xperi. miu of anodic cathodic
merit stand- - mA ' in
-1 1
ing 4Vi8V 2v 0v1 , PH
-- - -
at. KC I /
6 cc 4.9; 5.22 5.27 + 0.05
do. 5.09 4.98 4.91 - 0.07
T. R. do. 4.71 4.91 4.89 4.88 - 0.08
left
%: KC
forearm
4 cc 5.48 5.03 5.03 5.12 + 0.09
do. 5.94 4.39 4 . 3 i 4.39 1 0
do. 5.66 4.88 4.88 4.8F 4.83 1.65 - 0.05
H. F. 5.4: 5.4% 5.4( 1.35 -0.09
right do. 5.30 5.49
forearm
L. L. no. 5.89 6.67 5.63 5.63 0.55 - 0.04
right 5.74 5.74 0.95 - 0.01
forearm
do. 5.71 5.i3

R. R.
right do. 6.67 5.68 5.61
1 I - 0.oi
forearm I Mean value + 0.05
It can be seen from the table that the highest variation in pH
of the contact electrolyte is 0.09, the mean variation being 0.05.
During anodic conduction, the pH value increased in 2 experi-
ments, decreased in 5 experiments, and remained unchanged in
one experiment. In the case of cathodic conduction, the pH de-
creased in 5 experiments and remained unchanged in one experi-
ment.
As a result of the pH determinations it was found that electro-
10-424075. Acla phys. Scandinav. Vol. 5.
146 THOMAS ROSENDAL.

lyte in contact with the skin changes its p H from about 5 . 7 3 t o

4.97 in the course of 45 min. Conduction of d. c., however, is of
no appreciable effect on the pH of the contact electrolyte.

Discussion.
The experiments described above confirm LEWISand ZOTTER-
MAN’S (1927) localization of the d. c.-resistance of the skin t o th e
stratum corneum and they are also in agreement -with ROSEN-
DAL’S (1940) localization of the a. c.-resistance of the skin to the
same layer. I n contrast to the view held by most of the previous
investigators - GILDEMEISTER and his school -, the various con-
ductivity phenomena must be located in the stratum corneum.
The assumption can no longer be maintained th a t the d. c.-re-
sistance of the skin is an apparent resistance due t o polarization
corresponding to the cell membranes in the living cell layers of
the stratum germinativum.
Presumably, the d. c.-conduction through the stratum cor-
neum occurs through the excretory ducts of the sweat glands
or the sebaceous glands and along the hair sacks; this was made
probable by REIN’S investigations (1926) concerning the trans-
port of coloured cations and anions (methylen blue and eosin)
through the skin. However, the probability exists th a t a n ion
migration also takes place directly through interspaces between
the horny cells of the stratum corneum. The cause of the large
individual and regional difference in the d. c.-resistance of the
skin might he found in variations of the length, dimensions, and
electrolyte content of these channels through the stratum cor-
neum .
The decrease in d. c.-resistance of a skin area o l 7 cm2 either
after a lesion of the stratum corneum by abrasion with emery
paper or by short-circuiting a t a n e. ni. f. above 2-6 volts is
due t o the formation of electrolyte-filled low ohmic shunt re-
sistances in the stratum corneum which form a contact with
the well-conducting internal tissue through the living cell layers
of the stratum germinativum. It is natural to explain the de-
crease in the d. c.-resistance after EBBECKE’S mechanical and
galvanic reaction i n the same way. EBBECKE’S galvanic reaction
(1921) was accompanied by a dilatation of the vessels, which
EBRECKE ascribed t o a formation of dilating substances during
the passage of d. c. through the skin. On the basis of ROSEN-
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES O F THE HUMAN SKIN. 147
THAL and MINARD‘S (1939) investigations it may be assumed
that the dilatation of the vessels and the feeling of pain which
appear in the respective skin area a t potentials above 2-6 volts
are caused by the formation of histamin during the passage of
d. c. through the skin.
Moistening and conduction experiments show the significance
of the electrolyte content of the stramturncorneum for the d. c.-
resistance of the skin, in agreement with earlier observations
when low-frequency a. c. was applied (cf. p. 131).
The increase in electrolyte content of the stratum corneum in
the course of the conduction also explains the hysteresis phenom-
enon (cf. p. 130) which GILDEMEISTERassumed t o he caused
by a change in polarization of the living cell layers.
Finally, the increasing electrolyte content of the stratum cor-
neum due to moisture and conduction of d. c. may explain the
decrease in d. c.-resistance of the skin during anodic and cathod-
ic conduction which appears with increasing voltage up t o 2-4
volts. I n the recent literature, even in SCHAEFER’S
book on electro-
physiology (1940), the decrease in skin resistance with increasing
voltage is interpreted as a reduced polarization of the skin a t
higher voltages. However, this interpretation is erroneous, and it
would also he a misinterpretation t o consider the decrease in
resistance a t voltages above 2-6 volts, which are due t o a short-
circuiting of the skin, as a n expression of reduced polarization.
The voltage dependence of the skin resistance determined
after moistening of the stratum corneum with 1 per cent KC1-
solution or saturated KC1-solution shows - in contrast t o earlier
investigations - t h a t the resistance t o anodic conduction in-
creases with increasing potential up t o 2--4 volts, while the re-
sistance t o cathodic conduction decreases. The difference between
the resistances in both directions approaches zero a t 0.1 volt,
while a t 2 volts the difference can exceed 100 per cent of the
resistance t o cathodic conduction. The difference in resistance
t o the two directions of current is a n expression of a polarity
of the stratum corneuin t o d. c. The polarity is independent of
the initial direction of the current and it increases with time
during conduction in both directions, since the resistance de-
creases or increases, respectively, until a constant value is ob-
tained after 2-3 min of conduction in each direction. A polarity
was also found in the case of a. c. of a frequency of 200 cycles
where the resistance is partly a n ohmic, partly a capacitive re-
148 THOMAS ROSENDAL.

sistance; it could, however, not be found a t 1,000 cycles when

the conduction is only capacitive.
REIN (1926) found a similar difference in skin resistance t o
anodic and cathodic conduction when 1jlOO m or 1/10 m KC1-
solutions were applied as contact electrolyte. He interpreted the
difference as a n expression of a change in polarization of the skin
after reversion of the current.
According t o investigations of the polarity of organic mem-
branes (BETHEand TOROPOFF 1914, 1915, MICHAELISand cowor-
kers 1925-27, FREUNDLICH 1930, and HOBER1936), a n electro-
negatively charged membrane is mainly permeable t o niono-
valent anions. The polarity can be reversed b y re-charging the
membrane. I n the case of a n electronegatively charged, water-
free collodion membrane, BETHEand TOROPOFFobserved a n
alkali formation on the anode side, and a formation of acid on
the cathode side of the membrane after conduction of d. c.
REJX (1927) has put forward the view t h a t the membrane
effect of the skin must exclusively be located t o the stratum
lucidum and that it is due t o a negative charge of this layer;
the membrane should, further, be more permeable t o anions
than t o cations, and the outward migration of anions should
be more difficult than the inward migration. REINrefers to the
fact that water permeates the skin cathodically when the anode
is placed on the outer side of the epidermis and the cathode on
its inner side. However, the opposite direction of conduction
has not, been studied. REIN points out further t h a t the living
cell layers of the stratum germinativum and the hair follicles
are better stained by basic methylen blue with a staining cation
than by acid eosin with a staining anion. Since, however, the
stratum corneum is not stained by any of these substances,
the experiments do not give any information concerning the
electric conduction of this layer, but t,hey show only t h a t the
stratum germinativum is best stained by methylen blue. Finally,
REIN mentions the observation previously discussed of a n al-
kali formation in the contact electrolyte beneath the anode after
conduction of d. c. through the skin, and this is considered t o
indicate t h a t the skin is negatively charged; BETHE and TORO-
POFB’S investigations of the pH variations on each side of a n
electronegatively charged collodion membrane are taken t o sup-
port this view. However, the writer’s investigations do not con-
firm REIY’schange in p H of the contact electrolyte after conduc-
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES OF THE EUMAN SKIN. 149
tion of d. c. through the skin; therefore, and moreover in view
of the above discussed objections, it is the writer’s opinion t h a t
the conditions determining the electric charge of the skin are
not yet elucidated.
This view-point is supported in a paper by BRAUNER (1930).
I n the case of a n electronegatively charged, non-living, semi-
permeable membrane, BRAUNER found the opposite polarity for
d. c. t o t h a t in the skin, and he explained this effect by a p H
variation in alkaline direction on the anode side and iiz acid di-
rection on the cathode side. ,4s a membrane, he used the seed-
coat of the horse-chestnut. The d. c.-resistance of this membrane
a t 2.5 volts and during cathodic conduction is 315 per cent of
the resistance during anodic conduction, when 1 i 4 N K,SO,-solu-
tion is used as a n electrolyte on each side of the membrane. Since
the polarity of this inembralie t o d. c. is opposite t o the polarity
of the skin, we cannot for them both expect the same change in
pH on the anode- and cathode side of the membrane as a cause
of their polarity. Consequently, it must be assumed either t h a t
this explanation is erroneous, or t h a t the skin is not electronega.
tively charged.
Also other facts seem t o indicate t h a t the electric charge of
the stratum corneum is more complicated than assumed by
REIN. SCHADE and MARCHIONINI’S(1928) observation of a n acid
reaction on the surface of the skin are in favoiir of a n electro-
positive charge on the outer side of the stratum corneum. The
same authors found a n allialine reaction (pH 7 . 4 4 ) after lesion
of the epidermis which might indicate a n electronegative charge
on the inner side of the stratum corneuni.
Apart from the electric charge of the stratum corneum, the
ion size of the electrolytes on the outer- and inner side of the
stratum corneum will be of importance, since the resistance to
anodic conduction is determined by the migrating-in of the
anions and -out of the cations, while the resistance t o cathodic
conduction is determined by the opposite transport. This view
has been further supported b y preliminary experinients in which
solutions with large and small anions, respectively, and different
cations were used as contact electrolytes. It was found t h a t 10
per cent sodium benzoate solution and 10 per cent sodium citrate
solution as contact electrolyte annulled the difference in skin
resistance to anodic and cathodic conduction, while 1 per cent
NaCl led t o a similar difference as 1 per cent KC1-solution.
150 THOMAS ROSENDAL.

Finally, also the concentration of the contact electrolyte is

of importance, since the difference in skin resistance a t the two
directions of current increased from 45 per cent t o 200 per cent
when saturated KC1-solution was applied as contact electro-
lyte instead of 1 per cent KC1-solution.
It may, therefore, be assumed t h a t the polarity of the skin
t o d. c. can be ascribed t o the electric charge of the stratum cop-
neum, however, also the type and the concentration of the con-
tact electrolyte are of significance.
The results from a closer study of these phenomena will be
given in a later publication.

Summary.
The resistance t o direct current (voltage 0-12 V) of a 7 ern2
skin area on the volar side of the forearm has been determined
under different conditions, using polarization-free silver-silver
chloride electrodes.
The skin resistance is almost exclusively located in the stratum
corneuni and decreases very markedly with increasing electro-
lyte content of this layer. The conductivity of the stratum ger-
minativum corresponds to that of the internal tissue which is
rich in electrolyte, and behaves like a low ohmic resistance t o
d. c.
On 7 em2 of skin area, the stratum corneum shows polarity
t o d. c. a t currents below 1 mA, since the resistance t o anodic
conduction increases with increasing e. m. f. up t o 2--4 volts,
while the resistance t o cathodic conduction decreases. At volt-
ages above 2-4 volts, the resistance t o both directions of cur-
rent decreases t o a value which corresponds t o the resistance of
the internal tissue. This decrease in resistance is presumably due
t o a short-circiiiting of the stratum corneum. The polarity of the
stratum corneum, which is highest when voltages around 2 volts
are applied, is brought into relation t o a possible electric charge
of the stratum corneuni and t o the type and the concentration
of the contact electrolyte.
The pH of the contact electrolyte (4 cc I per cent KC1-solution)
decreased after standing on the skin for 20-45 min t o a mean
value of 4,97, determined on 4 persons in 14 experiments. I n
contradistinction t o REIN’Sinvestigations, no change in the pH
 CONDUCTING PROPERTIES OF THE HUMAN SKIN. 151
of the contact electrolyte after anodic a n d cathodic conduction
of d. c. through t h e skin could b e observed.

My heartiest thanks are due t o F. BUCHTHAL, 31. D., for sti-

mulating advice and helpful discussions in t h e course of this
work.

References.
BETHE,A., and T. TOROPOFF,
Z. phys. Chem. 1914. 88. 686.
-, Ibidem 1915. 89. 597.
BISRUPSKI, F., Pfliig. Arch. ges. Physiol. 1938. 240. 282.
BRAUNER, L., Jahrb. wiss. Botanik 1930. 73. 513.
BROWN,A. S., J. Amer. chem. Soc. 1934. 56. 646.
BUCHTHAL, F., and I. 0. NIELSEN,Skand. Arch. Physiol. 1936. 74.
202.
EBBECKE, U., Pfliig. Arch. ges. Physiol. 1921. 190. 230.
-, Ibidem 1922. 195, 300.
-, Ibidem 1923. 199. 197.
EINTROVEN, W., and J. BIJTEL,Pfliig. Arch. ges. Physiol. 1923. 198.
439.
PREUNDLICH, H., Kapillarchemie, Leipzig 1930.
GALLER, H., Pfliig. Arch. ges. Physiol. 1913. 149. 156.
GARTNER, G., Med. Jahrb. Ges. Arzte, Wien 1882. 519.
GILDEMEISTER, M., Pfliig. Arch. ges. Physiol. 1915. 162. 489.
-, Z. biol. Techn. Meth. 1915. 3. 28.
-, and E. R. KAUFHOLD, Pflug. Arch. ges. Physiol. 1920, 179, 154.
-, Handb. norm. pathol. Physiol. 1928. VIII. 2. 657.
HOBER,R., Physiol. Rev. 1936. 16. 52.
LEWIS,T., and Y. ZOTTERMAN, J. Physiol. 1926-27. 62. 280.
MICHAELIS, and others, quoted from FREUNDLICH, H., Kapillarchemie.
MUNK,H., Arch. Anat. Physiol., Lpzg. 1873. 505.
REIN, H., Z. Biol. 1926. 84. 41. 118.
-, Ibidem 1927. 85. 195. 217.
-, Handb. Haut- u. Geschlechtskrankheiten 1929. 1: 3. 43.
ROSENDAL, T., The conducting properties of the human organism t o
alternating current, Copenhagen 1940.
ROSENTIIAL, S. R., and D. MINARD, J. exp. Med. 1939. 70. 415.
SCHADE, H., and A. MARCHIONINI, Arch. Dermat. Syf. 1928. 154. 690.
SCKAEFER, H., Elektrophysiologie, Berlin 1940.