THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS*

By W. G. THOMPSON, Ph.D., B.Sc, Member.f

{The paper was first received 13//i March, and in revised form 22nd November, 1943.)

SUMMARY sphere vary considerably. Some data relating to the typical

An analysis of the nature of the air-borne particles which constitute groups are given in Table 1.
the main source of contamination on outdoor porcelain insulators, and
of the forces acting upon them in the electrostatic field around an Table 1
insulator, suggests that these forces are inadequate to account com-
pletely for the observed distribution and the quantity of the deposits Nature of suspended matter Diameter, microns
on insulator surfaces. Direct measurements of the field strengths close
to the insulator confirm that the voltage gradients do not reach very
high values under normal conditions, and that the electrical forces are 'Smokes 0001- 0-3
proportionately weak. Investigations of the air flow over the insu- Inorganic* Fumes 001 - 10
lators, and comparisons of the formations of air eddies observed in Dust .. 10 - 1000
the flow over the geometrical forms associated with the complex shapes Bacteria 10 - 100
of insulators, show that the aerodynamic conditions have a considerable Organic Plant spores. 100 - 200
bearing upon the patterns formed by the deposits on the insulators. ^Pollens 150 - 500
'Fog .. 10 - 500
Wind-tunnel experiments provide results which illustrate the influence Mist .. 500 - 1000
of the Reynolds' number, the applied voltage, the surface roughness, water < Drizzle 1000 - 4000
the wind velocity and the humidity, upon the distribution and amount l^Rain.. 4000 -40000
of deposited matter. Moisture films constitute a special case of
temporary contamination with sparking following the receding edges
of the drying films. Finally, a method is suggested of estimating the There is also a wide variation in the number of particles
flashover values of insulators from a consideration of the distribution
present in the air: these amount to some 200/cm3 in fine weather
of surface resistance as modified by the presence of deposited matter.
and as many as 53 000/cm3 in dense fog. In the latter case
particles with diameters ranging from 1 • 5 microns downwards
have been observed. It may be of interest to note that the size
(1) INTRODUCTION of particles used in the experiments described in this paper ranges
The distinctive patterns formed by the dirt deposits on trans- from about 1 mm diameter for the turpentine smokes down to
mission-line insulators which have been in service in polluted 0 • 3 micron for the fine tobacco smoke used to indicate air flow.
atmosphere suggest that the process of contamination is governed The forces acting upon the air-borne particles are of several
by definite physical laws. If this is so, then the nature of such kinds, kinetic, gravitational, electrical and aerodynamic. The
laws should be evident from the behaviour of the air-borne con- kinetic forces resulting from the molecular collisions with the
taminating particles as they come within the field of the insulator, smallest particles have already been mentioned; they are respon-
and also from their reaction to the physical conditions at the sible for the Brownian movement and the maintained suspension
surface of the insulator. It was decided to study the contamina- . of the permanent impurities. The gravitational forces determine
tion of insulators from a sornewhat academic viewpoint, and the rate of settling of the larger particles and the formation of
some formal experiments were conducted in the laboratory to deposits on the upper surfaces of insulators. For dust particles
determine the contribution of the various factors in the process the mean rate of settling in still air is about 6 to 12 inches per
of dirt deposition. The limitations of some of these tests are hour, and unless the electrical forces are considerably stronger
frankly admitted and the results are offered more from the than gravity it is apparent even at this stage that high particle
scientific aspect rather than as criteria of those insulator designs velocities are unlikely to be encountered.
which were of necessity subjected to accelerated pollution tests. Two kinds of electrical forces are operative with particles sus-
pended in an electrostatic field. The first is exclusive to charged
(2) THE NATURE OF THE PARTICLES AND THE FORCES particles, the second to non-uniform fields. The charged par-
ACTING UPON THEM ticles involved in the present study are mainly the atmospheric
Impurities suspended in the atmosphere can be classified in ions; the more important facts concerning these have been sum-
two groups, (a) permanent and (b) temporary suspensions. The marized by Schonland.2 Particularly relevant items are first the
first group comprises the insoluble and non-condensable inorganic preponderance of large slowly-moving ions of the condensation
matter of ultra-microscopic size, which is maintained in suspension nuclei or dust particle kinds, whose mobilities range from 0 • 0005
by the kinetic forces of the moving gas molecules and can be to 0 0003 cm/s/V/cm, and secondly that the great majority of
precipitated only by electrical means. The temporary suspensions ions carry a single elementary charge, either positive or negative.
include {a) the heavy inorganic particles which ultimately deposit The particles will tend to move in the electrostatic field along the
by gravitation, {b) the organic material which either deposits or lines of force towards the positive or negative pole, according to
decomposes, and (c) water-vapour particles which either condense the sign of the charge. The magnitude of the force Pc is a product
or disperse according to the temperature and wind conditions. of the field strength <f in electrostatic units and the number of
From data published annually by the Department of Scientific elemental charges on the particle (n x 4-774) in accordance with
and Industrial Research and independent investigators1 it is evi- Coulomb's law. The electrostatic field of an insulator, however,
dent that the sizes of the particles suspended in the atmo- alternates with the frequency of the power supply, and will cause
an oscillatory motion of any charged particles. If for the
• Transmission Section paper, moment the possible influence of corona effects be ignored, the
t General Electric Co., Ltd.
VOL. 91, PART II. [317] 21
318 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS
mean Coulombic force is zero when considered over a whole Thus, if <f, V and x be measured directly the value of log R/r can
cycle, as shown by equation (1). be deduced, R and r being the corresponding hypothetical radii
of the equivalent electrode arrangement. Once determined, this
p r= 4.774/1,- &max sin cotdt 0 0) quantity is a numerical constant for a given insulator under
ITT stable conditions, and can therefore be used as a coefficient of the
applied voltage in equation (4), so that by substituting the value
All particles, whether charged or uncharged, whose dielectric con- of grad <f2 in equation (2) the pull on a particle at a known dis-
stant differs from that of air produce a distortion of the electro- tance from the insulator can be calculated. To quote an actual
static field at their surfaces. In a uniform field the forces pro- case, the insulator No. 1 shown in Fig. 1 with 20 kV applied had
duced by the distortion are balanced; uncharged spherical par- a measured field strength of 0-8 kV/cm at a radial distance of
ticles will remain at rest and, although elongated particles may 6 cm from the axis, giving an equivalent grad <£2 of 0-1152 V2/x3.
experience a turning moment, there will be no translatory forces. The natural rate of settling of particles in air depends upon
If the field is non-uniform, the forces are unbalanced and the their weight, and a comparison with the pull on the particles due
particles tend to be drawn into the strongest part of the field. It to the insulator field is of interest. With Vmeasured in kilovolts
is shown in textbooks on electrical theory3 that the force is pro- the force/weight ratio is given by equation (5).
portional to the volume of the particle and to the gradient of 2
the square of the field strength, and is also a function of the di- 1
11-
electric constant. The equation for the force on a spherical og R/r
particle of radius a and dielectric constant K in an alternating • (5)
field of force is shown in equation (2). irS.981
2rr
K — 1 Substitution of the values corresponding to the particular example
g Lx Sm
"
quoted above, shows that the force/weight ratio for water par-
ticles at the insulator surface is only 0-0005. The ratio indicates
K — 11 that the effect of the insulator field at ordinary working voltages
.. • • (2)
is negligibly small. It is evident that this must be so, otherwise
and is not zero when integrated over the whole cycle. insulators would become completely coated in an intolerably
These equations can be applied to the present problem in the short time.
same way as their unidirectional counterparts have been used in the (2.1) Air Resistance
study of electrostatic precipitators.4 Numerous researches have The above result also suggests that the air motion need not be
also been made into the motion of fine particles
suspended in air and into the movement of
charged particles in a uniform direct-voltage
field:5 the forces acting on all particles in the
direction of the field gradient have been dis-
cussed by Roth,6 who has studied the deposition
of dust on insulators subjected to the com- 20 kV applied Measured field strength (kV/cm) at
paratively still air in a room.
Type State A ] B C D E
To revert to the equation of the gradient
force, the influence of the dielectric constant of Dry 1-25 1-36 1-62 0-54 0-92
the particle is indicated by the term (K — 1)/ Pin (a)
(Fig. 10) Fog 1-67 0-27 0-81 108 0-32
(K + 2): this can be practically nil or unity
according to whether the dielectric constant is Rain . 1 0 0-27 0-22 0-54 "| 0-22
unity or infinity. It follows that all air-borne Pin (b)
(Fig. 10) Dry 0-9 104 0-63 0-21 10
particles will tend to be drawn into the field of
the insulator, but the relative intensities of the
forces involved for water vapour, soot and
silica dust are 0-96, 0-6 and 0-45.
0- 2
The determination of the term (grad cf2) for Dry i ° •25 0 •45 0 •9 1 •7
each region of the complicated field-form of an DiFC Fog 0- 3 1•2 1 •5 1 •3 1•7
insulator would be a lengthy process. A solu- Rain 0- 35 0 •9 1 •4 1 •4 2 •5
tion adopted by the author is to measure the
actual field strength near the surface of the
insulator with a given voltage applied, and to
assume an approximate field-form from which
the equivalent (gradtf2) can be calculated.
By way of illustration, if a coaxial arrange-
ment be adopted for the equivalentfieldof a pin- Fig. 1.—Observed field strengths at insulator surfaces.
type insulator, the field strength <r2 at a radial
distance x with a potential V applied to the insulator is given large to overcome the electrostatic attraction. The motion of
by equation (3), and grad if2 by equation (4). very small particles is best ca'culated from Stokes's law as indi-
cated by
V
(3)
x log R/r * // (6)
and 4
2/ V
(4) Knrqa
where v is the velocity, P the driving force, r/ the internal friction
 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS 319
of the gas (rj — 1-8 x 10 c.g.s.), and a the radius of the particle. constitute important factors in the mechanism of contami-
For field strengths of a few kV per cm the above equation gives nation.
velocities of the order of 10~3 cm/sec or less, a result in general
agreement with the investigations of Ladenburg, who also found (3) THE ELECTRIC FIELD OF AN INSULATOR
the gradient forces inadequate to account for the operation of The forms of the electrostatic fields of the different types of
electrostatic precipitators. As a matter of passing interest, the insulator are well known as they have been determined both
air resistance of larger particles, including raindrops, can be experimentally and graphically by several investigators.9 The
deduced from the experimental data determined by Lunnon,7 who direction of the lines of force can be explored by means of a
found that the resistance to the motion of falling spheres in air straw needle, and the intensity deduced from the potential dis-
is given by an equation of the type tribution at the insulator surface. An alternative method adopted
by the author was to measure the field strength directly by ob-
<f>lw2d (7) serving the oscillations of a small brass ellipsoid suspended by an
unspun silk thread in the various parts of the field around the
where cl is the diameter of the sphere, v the velocity, h the air
insulator. The ellipsoid had previously been calibrated and the
density and <> / a coefficient which ranges from 0132 to 0 168.
field strength was determined from the equation
With a mean value of <f> = 0-15, h and d 0-00125 and 1 mm
2 op iff.. -. \2 /o\
respectively, S = 0-1875 v . Immediately any relative motion is ,0 = A^/Jj — I1Q) {6)
produced with respect to the air, the particle will experience a
drag proportional to the square of the velocity. This factor will K being the constant of the ellipsoid, /?, the number of swings
determine the limiting velocity for a given field gradient and also per second with the 10
field applied and n0 the number of free
whether the particle isfinallycaptured by the field of the insulator swings per second.
or whether it is swept away by the wind. So far as can be ascer- In order to obtain some idea of the field strengths prevailing
tained, however, the particle velocities for field strengths below in practice, field strengths of some insulators were measured at
the corona limit are so low that only on the calmest days can the their rated working voltages, and in the corresponding dry, rain
gradient field have any serious influence upon the motion of the and fog states. The results are shown in Fig. 1. The fog state
was imitated by subjecting the cold insulator to a steam bath,
particle.
so that condensation took place on all surfaces and provided the
(2.2) Corona Discharge appropriate distortion of the insulator field. Such procedure is
The essential part played by corona discharge in the process of admittedly open to criticism inasmuch as a low temperature is
dust precipitation is -well known; in fact the electric wind from usually associated with fog, but the method used has 11
been shown
the discharge points has been shown to be the dominating factor to give results comparable with actual conditions.
in the operation of precipitators. In place of the high direct The salient features of the field forms of insulators, such as
voltage with a negative electrode as the source of discharge, the the stress concentration round the shackle in the suspension
transmission-line insulator has an alternating voltage impressed type, the axial distribution around the spindle in the pin-type,
with alternate half-cycles of positive and negative corona. The and the formation of equipotential surfaces in the design of the
rectifying effect of the diverging field is sufficient to impart a porcelain shape, have often been discussed. The direct deter-
unidirectional character to the motion of the particles under mination of the field strength by the method of timed oscillations
corona conditions. With corona, ionization will be increased takes into account the non-uniformities due to these various
considerably beyond the normal atmospheric conditions, both features. A striking demonstration of the validity of the method
as regards the number of ions present and the number of ele- is provided by the accurate measurements obtained in the in-
mental charges on each particle, and Seeliger4 quotes the case of vestigation of the field strength of the non-uniform field of an air
particles with 1 000 elemental charges. The induced motion of condenser. Some details of the ellipsoid and the results of
a charged particle in a strong alternating field is in the form of this test are given in Appendix 11.1.
small elongated loops, and a typical motion of this kind has been So far as can be gathered from the foregoing tests and from
observed with ammonium chloride smoke in a flask fitted with the published observations of other workers, there is no reason
electrodes energized by an alternating voltage.8 to believe that insulator field strengths reach abnormally high
Although the corona discharge may be intense under adverse values under ordinary conditions. The stress in the air around
climatic conditions, it is confined to the most highly-stressed the shackle on the line unit of a 132-kV insulator string ap-
parts of the insulator. The electric wind, in the form of air jets proaches the corona limit, while in the pin-type the values are
directed away from the discharge points, induces local air circu- considerably less. The calculations and the experimental
lations which promote the flow of charged and uncharged evidence tend to show that in fine weather the electrical forces
particles over the surface of the insulator. Measurements made are comparatively weak; it is only during rain or fog when
by the author indicated that the velocity of the air stream is pro- electrical discharges are present that the electric field of the insu-
portional to the applied voltage,8 while in addition the electric lator plays a direct part in bringing the contaminating particles
charge associated with the wind is found to be negative at a dis- to the insulator surface.
tance from the source, so that charged particles would also ex-
perience a unidirectional force. In view of the air resistance, (4) THE AIR FLOW AROUND AN INSULATOR
however, it is doubtful whether they could have any appreciable Except on the very calmest of days an outdoor insulator will
movement against the air stream. The corona discharge from always be subjected to a moving air stream, and will thus exhibit
the metal fittings or condensation droplets on an insulator is the turbulence and wake effects exhibited by all aerodynamic
most pronounced in fog and rain, and the water particles tend to bodies. These effects have their origin in the velocity gradient
coalesce in the electrostatic field and are directed against the at the surface of the body. At very low air speeds the flow
various parts of the insulator surface by the electric wind. At the follows approximately the contours of any obstacle in the air
surface any dust particles carried by the electric wind will be stream and the flow is described as laminar, or streamlined. At
retained by the surface tension of the moisture film. Thus, in higher air speeds, the velocity gradient at the surface is sufficiently
effect, corona associated with the large number of particles large to cause a breakdown of the streamline flow and a breaking
present in fog, and the receptive state of the insulator surfaces, away of the Prandtl boundary layer in the form of sheets of small
320 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS
number in the ratio of 1 : 2. A similar varia-
Vortex sheets tion arises as a result of the shapes of the com-
ponent parts of the insulator and its fittings; thus
for a given wind speed over an 8-in diameter in-
Wake sulator the Reynolds' number can range from
eddies 70 000 to 250 000 at positions corresponding
to the different diameters of the sheds.
Vortex sheets In order to study the influence of the three
types of air flow on the deposition of dirt at the
insulator surface, a closed-circuit wind tunnel was
built, complete with the usual baffles and honey-
combs for air control, and fitted with means for
injecting smoke, cement dust and steam into the
flow. Some data about the tunnel are given in
Appendix 11.2. Various standard forms were
subjected to test, as well as insulators with their
working voltage applied, while the tunnel was also
calibrated in terms of fan speed and the weight
and size of suspended matter per cm3. The ex-
perimental results obtained were in accordance
with air-flow theory. On smooth surfaces the
flow was uninterrupted and the particles moved
relatively fast, so that they were less likely to
be retained by the electrostatic field. In addition
Fig. 2.—Smoke traces of eddy formations around insulators
the surface was subjected to a scouring action
so that any particles which attempted to adhere
(a) Pin type. (b) Typical air-flow around cylinder,
(c) Air flow over suspension-type insulator.
were removed. On certain parts of the insulator,
particles tended to be thrown directly on to the
vortices on either side of the body. This occurs at definite surface, and this gave rise to a thick, coagulated form of deposit.
values of the Reynolds' number, and large slowly-moving eddies At other points where the airflowbroke into eddies the particles
are formed in the region between the vortex sheets, i.e. directly took a longer time to traverse thefieldof the insulator and tended
in the wake of the body. An insulator will thus be subjected to
three types of air flow, as shown in Fig. 2; the laminar flow on
the windward wide, the high-speed eddies in the vortex sheets on
either side, and the slowly-moving eddies in the wake. It will
be shown later that each of these types of flow makes a charac-
teristic contribution to the deposition of foreign matter on the
surface of the insulator. In addition to these effects the de-
flecting action of the insulator sheds must also be considered,
and the combined phenomena can be conveniently demon-
strated at low air speeds by means of smoke traces. Fig. 2 also
shows the smoke patterns for two typical forms of insulator.
These patterns were drawn diagrammatically from the direct
observation of the air movement over the insulator, as indicated
by the smoke from a smouldering taper held at various points
near the insulator. The different types of insulator can be re-
solved into a number of standard geometrical forms whose air-
flow characteristics have already been exhaustively studied and
to which reference will be found in any book on advanced aero-
dynamics. Particularly relevant forms are the cylinder, the
hollow cylinder, the truncated cone, and the open-ended pipe
with an axial spindle. Fig. 3 gives a pictorial illustration of the Fig. 3.—Air-flow over geometrical shapes.
types of air circulation associated with some of these forms, and (a) Plane. (b) Cylinder.
sufficient knowledge is available to determine the air flow over (c) Hollow pipe. (d) Truncated core.
(<•) Coaxial cylinders.
similarly-shaped parts of insulators.
To quote an example of the foregoing possibility, Fage12 has to be thrown against the surface by the centrifugal force. This
determined experimentally the separation of the vortex sheets gave rise to a more uniform and finely-divided form of deposit.
from the sides of a cylinder; he found that this occurred at angles Fig. 4 shows the results obtained with a smooth cylindrical sur-
between 86J and 105° to the axis of flow, with the centre line of face, and for the purposes of explanation the cylinder can be
the cylinder as the origin. The air speeds ranged from 22-0 divided into three regions according to the distribution of flow.
to 71-4 ft/sec and corresponded to a change in the Reynolds' They are: the area of direct impact, the region of tangential
number from 102 600 to 333 000. It follows that in practice the flow, and the wake area. The deposits from each region were
air-flow pattern around an insulator will alter both with the wind carefully removed in sections and weighed; the results are
speed and the dimensions of the body. The former, taken at an plotted in Fig. 4. It was found that a deposit of uniformly
average value of 25 m.p.h. and increased to a maximum of varying thickness occurs in the front, the thickness being pro-
50 m.p.h., would be equivalent to a change of the Reynolds' portional to the angle of impact. There was no deposit in the
 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS 321
Deposit, grammes/unit area
09

0-8
\
07

0-4

0j3_

0-2

01
Front
180° 60 0 60 80 180°
' Fig. 4.—Distribution of deposit on a cylindrical surface.
(a) Plan with radial scaje enlarged.
(Z>) Developed distribution.

tangential region where the impact angle is zero, and a deposit

of uniform thickness was formed on the rear half of the cylinder
in the region of the wake. Horizontal surfaces placed in the air
stream beside the cylinder showed traces of the vortex sheets
and the eddy formation in the wake of the cylinder.
A second interesting example tested in the wind tunnel was
the truncated cone shown in Fig. 5. Here the pattern of the
deposit was not parallel to the axis of the cone, but displaced
according to the Reynolds' number corresponding to the changing
diameter of the horizontal sections in a manner which is in agree-
ment with the air-flow researches of Fage. That is to say, the
smaller the radial dimension the earlier the transition from the
region of direct impact to that of the wake effect. The con-
tamination thus showed a clean oblique strip down the cone, and
the boundaries of this strip approximated to the results of Fage's
tests, also tabulated in Fig. 5.
To anticipate some later results, the types of insulator ex-
amined under these conditions all exhibited the same features,
and the distribution of deposited matter can be summarized as
follows: On the conical vertical surfaces the deposit is of variable
thickness on the windward side, changing to a uniform thickness
on the lee side, at an angular position which, regarded in plan,
depends upon the Reynolds' number. Horizontal or nearly
horizontal surfaces under the sheds exhibit deposit patterns in
conformity with the air flow in the wake of neighbouring vertical
surfaces. Ribs arranged concentrically, as on disc-type sus-
pension insulators, show deposits on the windward edges, but
are comparatively clear where their curvature is in the direction
of flow. Deeper concentric arrangements exhibit the same
tendency around the edges, but inside show a fairly uniform
deposit which diminishes as the distance from the open end
increases.
(5) THE COMBINED ACTION OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD AND
AIR FLOW
In practice neither the electric field nor the air flow is constant
so that experimental conditions can represent only a particular
phase of the general problem. The electric'field changes with
the moisture distribution and with the different types of insulator,
while the air flow may vary from practically laminar flow in still
air to turbulence in high wind. Moreover, the distribution of
the turbulence will undergo a polar rotation with respect to the
Clean section
Fig. 5.—Distribution of deposit on a conical surface.
o (ft/sec) 22•0 26 •9 39 •2 57 •9 71 •4
<-//v X 103 102•6 125•4 182•8 270•0 330•0
C (deg) 86 92 94 105 105
ii — air velocity.
/ = cylinder diameter,
v = kinematic viscosity.
(7/v — Reynolds' number.
C -- angular position of start of turbulence.
insulator, according to the direction of the wind. The implica-
tions of Sections 3 and 4 are that the electrostatic field is re-
stricted in its attracting action to those regions where the air
flow is low, or where eddying causes the particle to be retained
in the strong part of the field for an appreciable time. The
following experimental evidence, however, shows that this should
not be taken to exclude the fact that the electrostatic effects play
a vital part in the retention of those particles which actually
come into contact with the surface of the insulator.
(5.1) Surface Effects
The factors involved in the final retention of the particles at
the insulator surface are the boundary layer of still air at the
surface, the surface roughness, the applied voltage, and the
humidity. The experimental investigation of each of these items
was carried out in the wind tunnel. A cylindrical test-piece with
an internal electrode was used, so that a sensibly radial field was
produced. The soot deposit upon the test piece was collected
after each test, which occupied about half an hour. The in-
fluence of the wind velocity on the surface deposit was tested by
circulating the air in the wind tunnel at successively increasing
air speeds, and weighing the amount deposited on the cylindrical
surface in equal intervals of time. In this test and in the other
tests which are about to be described, the quantitative results
obtained are relative to each group only, that is to say the values
322 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS
for each experiment can be compared only with other experi-
ments in the same set. Because of the complexity of the variables
involved no attempt was made to correlate the amount deposited
per unit area with the quantity circulated during the total time
of each test.
The results of the wind-velocity test showed that in three
tests out of the four the weight of deposited matter was almost
exactly the same (see Table 2), but the size of the aggregates
deposited at high velocity was very much greater than at the
lowest air speed.
Table 2
VARIATION OF DEPOSIT WITH W I N D VELOCITY. DURATION OF
TEST, 30 MINUTES
increasing quantities on those parts of an insulator which are
prone to contamination. Incidentally, calculations show that on
the basis of the amount of suspended matter in the air the depth
of the air layer disturbed at the rough surface is about twice that
of the surface variation.
To determine the influence of the applied voltage, successively
increasing voltages were applied to the electrode inside the porce-
lain for each half-hour test. The results are shown in Fig. 7,
0-05

Air speed Deposit

ft/nvn
132 0-0027 (fine film)
265 00029
397 0-0018
660 0-0028 (flakes)

In the above test the same total quantity of suspended matter

was present in the air in each case, but at the higher speeds the
same quantity was passed over the insulator a proportionately
greater number of times. The fact that this merely resulted in
the same amount being deposited by the end of each test suggests
that the matter deposited may vary in proportion to the quantity
of contaminating matter passing over the insulator in a given
interval of time, but inversely in proportion to the air velocity.
To ascertain the influence of the surface roughness upon the
rate of deposition, measurements were made with glass-paper
surfaces whose successive degrees of roughness were determined
with the aid of a microscope. The paper was cut into strips and
mounted on the surface of the porcelain. The results are given
in Fig. 6 and indicate that the amount deposited is directly pro-
005
/ method, which gave very consistent results in the wind tunnel
004
/
|003
10 15
Applied voltage, kV
Fig. 7.—Influence of applied voltage on weight of deposited matter.
and it will be observed that although the distribution of dirt was
similar to that in Fig. 4, the weight of matter retained on the
surface of the insulator was exactly proportional to the square of
the applied voltage, a result in agreement with electrostatic
theory but controlled by air-flow conditions.
Next, the influence of the relative humidity was studied, but
with a totally different kind of result. The humidity during the
tests was measured by the wet- and dry-bulb thermometer
provided the wet bulb was free from deposit. Table 3 shows the
final results of the experiment, and it will be seen that the humidity
itself had very little influence upon the amount deposited; a far
more important factor was the state of the porcelain surface—the
deposit increased tenfold as soon as the porcelain was wetted.

/ Table 3
J"0-02 VARIATION OF DEPOSIT WITH HUMIDITY. DURATION OF TEST,
30 MINUTES
/
0-01 Average temperature
Humidity Deposit
D y bulb We. bulb
op op
001 002 003 0-04 73-0 71-5 97-0 0-0422*
mm 650 610 900 00016
Fig. 6.—Influence of surface irregularity on weight of deposited 66-5 60-7 85-5 - 0-0004
matter.
• Surface wet.
portional to the height of the surface irregularity. Smooth
porcelain corresponds to the zero value, while the constant Reference has already been made to the testing of different
represented by the intercept in Fig. 6 depends upon the adhesive insulator forms in the wind tunnel, and Fig. 8 shows the typical
properties of the contaminating matter. A practical conclusion patterns produced on the under-side of a pin-type and suspension-
from this experiment is that the deposit will concentrate in ever- type insulator, respectively. The information obtained from
 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS
Fig. 8.—Observed distributions on under-sides of insulators exposed
in wind tunnel.
(a) Pin type. (b) Suspension type.
Wind direction, left to right.
these wind-tunnel experiments suggests a line of approach to the
problem of forecasting the probable performance of a given
design of insulator, from the contamination standpoint. The
dirt pattern produced in the wind tunnel represents the case of
a constant wind direction. In practice, additional information
about the position of the insulator in relation to probable sources
of atmospheric contamination and the meteorological infor-
mation about wind direction and the amount of rain and fog
would be necessary. A convenient starting-point is the polar
diagram of wind distribution, and Fig. 9 shows a typical dia-
Polar diagram of wind direction for
one yearfc data
Fig. 9.—Computed distribution from wind data.
323
gram for the British Isles with the radial scale as the number of
days on which the wind blows in a given direction. If the
amount of contamination is constant, irrespective of the wind
direction, e.g. near the middle of a large industrial area, a distri-
bution corresponding to Fig. 9 will be produced on the under-
side of the insulator. This figure is deduced by superimposing
the typical pattern from Fig. 8 on itself in the appropriate
angular positions corresponding to the different wind directions.
Where the source of contamination is localized, e.g. near an
isolated factory or along one side of a railway line, a result
similar to Fig. 8 will be obtained, the orientation depending
upon the prevailing wind.
The foregoing argument applies to all parts of the insulator
surface, so that it is possible to map out those areas which are
likely to become heavily coated with dirt deposits and so obtain
a picture of the probable condition of the insulator after a long
period of service. In practice, the actual contamination can
consist of widely different substances, such as soot, tar, salt spray,
cement dust, bauxite, and organic matter. These will vary
greatly in adhesive properties, hardness, and electrical con-
ductivity; many forms are non-conducting when dry and con-
ducting only when wet. Where salt is present, there is always
the danger of deliquescence, although the atmosphere itself may
not be saturated. It is clear that moisture films must therefore
play an important part in determining the behaviour of the
insulator in the contaminated state.
(6) MOISTURE FILMS
The principal phenomena accompanying moisture films on
insulator surfaces are (a) the distortion of the electrostatic field,
together with a change in the potential distribution, (b) the change
in the surface resistance of coated portions and the bridging of
these portions by conducting moisture paths, (c) the cycles of
alternate heating and condensation caused by the drying-out and
re-forming of moisture film over certain parts, accompanied by
sparking following the receding sharp edges of the film. Tests
made on a cylindrical porcelain surface which had been exposed
to the weather for some weeks gaveflashovervalues of 6 • 0 kV/cm
when dry, and 2-8 kV/cm when wet, compared with 6 0 kV/cm
and 3 • 0 kV/cm, respectively, when clean.
Moisture films can be divided into four groups, (a) the surface
film which is present even in dry weather, (b) the film produced
as a result of temperature differences between the insulator and;
the surrounding air, (c) the film which forms on the insulator in
mist and fog, and (d) the surface wetting produced by drizzle
and rain.
Films belonging to the first group give rise to no practical
difficulty and are usually associated with the surface resistivities
of solids. It is worth noting, however, that the leakage current
shows a considerable variation with the relative humidity.
Table 4 shows a typical record obtained with the disc-type
Table 4
Leakage current
Humidity
Dry Light rain
98° 175 350
95 148 248
90 125 160
85 110 115
80 100 Not raining
75 95
50 87
26 75
324 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS
insulator in Fig. 1; two of these insulators were suspended in
series so that their leakage current could be measured with 20 kV
applied.
The second type of moisture film is usually encountered on
cold insulators whose thermal time-lag has maintained their
temperature below that of the surrounding air, thereby causing
the insulators to act as condensing surfaces. This effect is a
well-known source of difficulty when switching-in a transmission
line which has been out of service. The differential drying action
of the wetted surface results in a change in the voltage distribu-
tion of the insulator and may cause abnormal voltage gradients.
The unequal rates of drying can arise from such causes as the
change in the cross-section of the leakage path on an insulator
surface, the varying current density produced by capacitance
current flowing to the moisture films, and differences due to an
initially fortuitous distribution of the moisture on the surface.
An indication of the mathematical treatment of this problem is
given in Appendix 11.3. The chief interest, however, is the
effect of the differential drying in amplifying the uneven distri-
bution of potential on the surface of a contaminated insulator,
the consequences of which are dealt with in Section 7.
The third process of moisture deposition is effected by the
movement of suspended water-vapour particles of microscopic
dimensions, which has already been discussed. Two other
points may be mentioned, namely the tendency of these particles
to coalesce under the influence of the electrostatic field, and the
drying action as well as the particle-carrying effect of the corona
wind. If the rate of deposition is sufficient to cause complete
surface wetting, continuous sparking may take place locally on
the insulator surface between the more heavily-wetted patches on
adjacent parts.
The problem of rain-wetted surfaces has been thoroughly in-
vestigated by numerous research workers,9' 13 and mention will
be made only of the encrustations of deposited matter left by
evaporation of rain drops at the edges of the insulator sheds.
These encrustations build up to provide a local roughening of
(a)
Fig. 10.—Measurement points and distribution of deposits on under-sides of tested insulators. Arcing at start of flashover shown on right
of axis.
the surface, so that deposits accumulate at a progressively in-
creasing rate. A similar effect takes place in a more distributed
form on the upper sides of insulator sheds, with the result that
although they are actually rain-washed they present a gradually-
increasing filmed appearance. The build-up of this film is too
slow to reproduce artificially, and it is surmised that the two main
causes of its formation are the natural settling-out of solid matter
from the atmosphere and the bringing-down of similar con-
tamination by raindrops. In both cases the moisture finally
evaporates from the surface of the insulator, leaving an extremely
fine and tenacious film which can only be removed by proper
cleaning.
(7) CONDUCTING DEPOSITS AND FLASHOVER
A clean insulator or insulator string will withstand many times
its working voltage withoutflashingover, yet in practice insulator
flashover is known to occur at voltages within the range of
ordinary operating conditions. Failures in these circumstances
indicate that a redistribution of potential must take place on
the insulator surface to enable the arcing to start. With a very
humid atmosphere some types of deposit become relatively good
conductors, and this, in conjunction with the differential drying
of the insulator, throws the whole strain of insulation upon the
remaining clean parts of the surface. It is recognized that the
measured total resistance of an insulator generally provides a
very inadequate indication of the working condition. If, how-
ever, the problem is reduced to the study of the clean high-
resistance paths connecting isolated conducting areas, the possi-
bilities of a quantitative treatment are considerably improved,
particularly as the different parts* are maintained at potentials
governed partly by their distributed capacitances, but much more
so by the leakage current over the surface of the contaminated
insulator.
In order to facilitate resistivity measurements, the group of
insulators illustrated in Fig. 10 were all fitted with small con-
ducting tabs at the numbered positions in the sectional view.
(d)
 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS
The insulators were then soiled in turn in the wind tunnel by
exposing them with their working voltage applied for about
6 hours in some cases and about 12 hours with large units. These
durations were determined from preliminary tests devised to
ascertain the state at which the insulators would fail at about
twice their working voltage, and it was found that contamination
had to be extremely bad before this occurred. After soiling,
each insulator was taken out and the resistance of the paths
between consecutive conducting tabs was measured. The
insulators were then tested for flashover under fog conditions
at 50 c/s. As a result of their treatment the insulators exhibited
the familiar patterns shown in Fig. 10, and the tests showed that
the start offlashoverwas by pilot sparking across the clean parts
of the surface, except where intense corona discharge occurred
between thickly-coated, closely-spaced ribs.
It is convenient at this stage to mention that the testing trans-
former should have adequate power available to maintain a
power arc, although its overload-relay settings may prevent the
total destruction of the insulator, which could occur in practice.
In some cases the more heavily-coated parts of the insulator may
pass sufficient current to cause the transformer to be tripped out
without arcing showing over the whole surface of the porcelain,
and it is often difficult to differentiate between conduction and
breakdown. The tests showed that this was not a vital issue in
the present instance, as the power available ensured sufficient arc
flame from the clean sections to complete the flashover of the
insulator under test. Photographic records were taken of each
insulator during the tests, and the position and appearances of
the arc discharges are shown in Fig. 10.
The results obtained suggested that the flashover voltage of an
insulator could be estimated from a knowledge of its surface con-
ditions; a method of forecasting the distribution of the surface
deposits has already been given. To reduce the complex three-
dimensional case to an equivalent two-dimensional form, the
developed surface area of the insulator can be drawn geometri-
cally to scale and the contaminated parts plotted thereon, as
shown in Fig. 11.
100%vo!ts
Fig. 11.—Determination of flashover voltage from surface-resistance
measurements. Insulator (b) (Fig. 10). Estimated flashover
voltage, 57 kV.
In the calculation of theflashovervoltage, it will be presumed
that the resistance distribution for the insulator surface has been
determined either by direct measurement or by estimation from a
developed area drawing showing the contamination. A voltage
is assumed to be applied to the insulator and increased until the
325
most highly-stressed section of the insulator has a voltage gradient
of 3 kV/cm. This section is assumed to be clean and wet, and
the voltage across it can be estimated by multiplying the length
by the voltage gradient just quoted. The failure ofthis section
may or may not lead to the complete failure of the insulator.
This will be governed by the condition of the remainder of the
insulator, and the total voltage across the insulator is found by
taking the ratio of the total resistance to the section resistance
and multiplying by the section voltage.
The first section is assumed to fail at 3 kV/cm. Its resistance
is therefore deducted from the total resistance, and the voltage
gradient across the next highest-stressed section calculated to see
whether this exceeds 3 kV/cm. If it does so the total voltage is
considered as being maintained, and this second section is re-
garded as having also flashed over. If the gradient is less than
3 kV/cm, then the voltage across the second section is calculated
at 3 kV/cm and the new total voltage determined. The process
is repeated until all the clean parts of the insulator have been
accounted for. Attention is then directed to the lower-resistance
sections. These are treated in a similar manner, but with the
proviso that sections whose resistances are less than 1 megohm/cm
but greater than 0-1 megohm/cm are considered to have a break-
down voltage of 2 8 kV/cm, corresponding to the dirty porcelain.
Below 0 1 megohm/cm the insulation resistance is practically
negligible for high-voltage purposes, and with these sections alone
in circuit the flashover of the insulator is considered to be
complete.
Table 5 gives the resistance measurements and calculated flash-
over voltages for the set of insulators in Fig. 10, indicating the
main stages in the calculation for each insulator. The Table
also shows a comparison between the estimated and actual
flashover values and the agreement between the hypothetical and
actual arcing surfaces after the accelerated contamination tests.
It will be seen that the results agree remarkably closely, despite
the various forms of insulator and the approximate nature of the
assumptions involved. The discrepancy in the case of No. 6
was due to the intense corona discharge between the stem and the
more thickly coated parts of the inner sheds.
(8) CONCLUSIONS
There is no doubt that, in the final determination of the per-
formance of an insulator from the anti-dirt standpoint, it is
essential to have recourse to the test racks of the testing stations
and the manufacturers' laboratories, and to supplement the
evidence obtained by service experience on overhead lines. It is
admitted that the complete account must involve a study of the
means by which material deposited on insulators is removed by
wind, rain and frost, but there seems little object in attempting
a study of this nature using only artificial deposits. The claim
is made, however, that the present paper provides a reasonable
working hypothesis of the mechanism of insulator contamination
and may suggest possible lines of attack on the practical problems
involved.
(9) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the late Prof.
W. M. Thornton, O.B.E., D.Sc, and to the Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research for facilities in connection with
the experimental work on which this paper is based.
(10) BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) C. E. MILLER: "Selecting Equipment for Industrial Gas
Cleaning," Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, 1938,
45, p. 132.
(2) B. F. J. SCHONLAND: "Atmospheric Electricity" (Methuen,
1932), p. 2.
326 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS
Table 5
ESTIMATION OF FLASHOVER VOLTAGES OF THE INSULATORS SHOWN IN F I G . 10, BASED ON RESISTANCE
MEASUREMENTS BETWEEN SELECTED POINTS ON THEIR SURFACES.

Insulator No. 1 Insulator No. 2 Insulator No. 3

Max. dia. 8-75 in Max. dia. 10 in Max. dia. 12 in
Creepage length 18-75 in Creepage length 21 -5 in Creepage length 27 in
Total resistance 1 519-07 Mil Total resistance 22-99 MO Total resistance 353-15 Mil
Contact section Sect. res. Sect, length Mfi/cm Sect. res. Sect, length Mfi/cm Sect. res. Sect, length Mfi/cm
Point MQ cm MS) cm MSI cm
1 (Line)
A 004 4-25 "0 009 01 4-7 0 022 0-3 7-4 004
2
B 0 03 3-3 0009 1-2 2-67 0 032 0-3 4-3 007
3
C 3-0 6-5 0-46 018 6-4 0-028 0175 7-22 002
4
D 10 3-54 2-75 015 3-8 0 036 0-4 6-4 0-062
5
6 F 500 30 166 01 4-85 0-02 0075m 5-9 0013
7 F 1000 6-6 ', 152 0-39 4-05 0:09 0-5 6-4 0 078
8 G 1-5 60 0-25 0-65 11-5 0-056 10 4-7 0-212
9 H 4-5 15-8 0-285 1-4 9-5 015 0-4 6-7 006
J 20 11-2 1-78 300 5-75 17-2
10 Earth
11 K
Earth 50 8-4 5-9
L
12 Earth
M
13
Calculations Sects. E and F have approximately equal 1st sect, to fail is J. 1st sect, to fail is J.
gradients and will fail together. At 3 kV/cm, section kV = 33-6. At 3 kV/cm, section kV = 17-2.
At 3 kV/cm voltage across E = 9 0 kV Corresponding total = 38-6 kV. Corresponding total = 20 kV.
do. F = 19-8kV 2nd sect, to fail is H. 2nd sect, to fail is K.
Total = 29-2kV At 2-8 kV/cm, section kV = 27-4. Section kV = 25-2.
Remaining resistance 1 519-17 — 1 500 Corresponding total = 57 kV. Corresponding total = 26-8 kV.
= 19-07 M£2. Remaining sections have practically no 3rd sect, to fail is G.
Sect. D has now 6 • 5 kV/cm and will arc- insulation value, so flashover voltage At 2-8 kV/cm, section kV = 13-1.
over without increase of voltage. estimated at 57 kV. Corresponding total = 39-8 kV,
Resistance of remaining sections is low, Remaining sections have negligible insula-
and as H is exposed to corona from tion value, so flashover voltage esti-
spindle with 15 kV across, this section mated at 40 kV.
will also arc and insulator should flash
over at about 30 kV.
Flashover voltage: Estimated 30 kV 57 kV 40 kV
Observed 35 kV 55 kV 39 kV
Arcing sections: • Estimated EFDH JH JKG
Observed AEFH - ACJH JKGFEDA
Insulator No. 4 Insulator No. 5 Insulator No. 6
Max. dia. 13 in Max. dia. 9 in Max. dia. 7 in
Creepage length 31 in Creepage length 21 -5 in Creepage length 10 in
Total resistance 149-77 MQ Total resistance 3 910-15 Mfi Total resistance 1 900 MSi
Contact section Sect. res. Sect, length Mf2/cm Sect. res. Sect, length Mn/cm Sect. res. Sect, length MQ/cm
Point Mii cm Mfi cm MQ cm
1 (Line)
A 20 8-8 2-25 100 5-8 17 004 4-8 0008
2
3 B 100 5-35 18-6 500 3-72 134 0-5 4-8 0104
4 C 7 4-5 1-56 9 4-8 1-86 014 5-9 0 029
5 D 1 4-8 0-21 015 5 09 0 029 003 3-75 0008
6 E 10 2-4 4-15 500 5 09 98 1000 60 166
7 F 9 81 1-12 2000 4-3 465 500 3-75 134
8 G 01 7-35 0014 1 2-15 0-46 400 5-7 79
H 800 3-6
9 0-2 4-66 0-43 222 Earth
J
10 015 3-5 0-43 Earth
11 K 012 9-3 0018
12 L 1 4-25 0-235
13 M 1-2 1-6 0-75
Earth
Calculations 1st sect, to fail is B. 1st sect, to fail is F. 1st sect, to fail is E.
At 3 kV/cm, section kV = 1602. At 3 kV/cm, section kV = 12-9. At 3 kV/cm, section kV = 18.
Corresponding total — 24 kV. Corresponding total = 25-2 kV. Corresponding total = 34 kV.
2nd sect, to fail is E. 2nd sect, to fail is H. At 34 kV alLthe remaining sections should
Section kV = 7-2. Section kV = 10-8. fail without further increase in voltage.
Corresponding total = 35-2 kV. Corresponding total = 25-8 kV. Estimated flashover voltage = 34 kV.
^t*r1 c^rt tn fa if ic A
JiU SCll. IO l u l l la r\. B, E and A will all fail successively without
Section kV = 26-4. further increase in voltage, as their Actually this insulator flashed-over under
Corresponding total = 54 kV. gradients exceed 3 kV/cm. the particularly adverse test conditions
Section C's gradient exceeds 3 kV/cm when Remaining sections have negligible insula- at 16-5 kV, owing to corona from the
A fails, and thus C fails without increase tion value, so flashover voltage esti- spindle short-circuiting G and F.
of voltage., Similarly F fails when C mated at 26 kV.
does. Remaining insulation negligible,
so flashover voltage estimated at 54 kV.
Flashover voltage: Estimated 54 kV 26 kV 34 kV
Observed 55 kV 27 kV 16-5 kV
Arcing sections: Estimated BEAFC FHBEA E
Observed BEAFC FGHBCEA EFGAB

• These results apply only to the particular conditions of test for research purposes and should not be considered typical of the service performance of any of these insulators
 THOMPSON: THE MECHANISM OF THE CONTAMINATION OF PORCELAIN INSULATORS , 327
(3) G. H. LIVENS: "The Theory of Electricity" (Cambridge Table 6
University Press, 1918), p. 113.
(4) R. SEELIG ER :" Die physikalischen Grundlagen der elektrischen Field strength
Gasreinigung," Zeitschrift fi'ir technische Physik, 1926, Radius
7, p. 49. Calculated Observed
(5) R. LADENBURG and H. SACHSSE: "Uber die maximale cm kV/cm kV/cm
Aufladung von Schwebeteilchen," Annalen der Physik, 7-0 1-28 1-30
1930, 4, p. 863. 16-4 0-545 0-545
(6) A. ROTH: "Hochspannungstechnik" (J. Springer, Berlin, 21-5 0-415 0-405
30-0 0-29 0-26
1927), p. 44.
(7) R. G. LUNNON: "The Resistance of Air to Falling Spheres,"
Philosophical Magazine, 1924, 47, p. 173. The chief agent for the production of smoke was the com-
(8) W. M. THORNTON, M. WATERS and W. G. THOMPSON: "The bustion of turpentine and cotton waste in a side chamber. It
Ionic Wind Voltmeter," Journal I.E.E., 1931, 69, p. 535. was not possible to maintain the amount of suspended matter
(9) W. REGERBIS: "Die Messung der Spannungsverteilung und absolutely constant during each test, but samples taken with the
des Feldlinienverlaufs an Isolatorenketten," Elektro- suction device used for abstracting a known volume of air
teehnische Zeitschrift, 1925, 46, pp. 298, 336. showed the amount of suspension to rise to a maximum and
K. KUHLMANN: "Hochspannungsisolatoren," Archiv fur gradually fall during each half-hour period. The mean quantity
Elektrotechnik, 1914-15, 3, p. 203. of suspended matter was 1 -57 g per cubic metre.
B. L. GOODLET: "The Testing of Porcelain Insulators,"
Journal I.E.E., 1929, 67, p. 1177. (11.3) The Differential Drying of an Insulator
(10) W. M. THORNTON: "The Measurement of Dielectric Con-
The non-uniform current density on a disc with electrodes at
stants by the Oscillations of Ellipsoids and Cylinders in the centre on opposite sides, results in evaporation taking place
a Field of Force," Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, more rapidly at the inner radii. In the case of a uniform surface
1909, 82, p. 422. with a potential applied at opposite ends the reason for differen-
(11) W. J. JOHN and G. H. CLARK: "The Testing of Transmission tial drying is not so obvious but it can be calculated as follows:
Line Insulators under Deposit Conditions," Journal I.E.E., Consider the surface with resistance p per unit length. Let the
1939, 85, p. 593. voltage and current at any point x on the surface be E and /
(12) A. FAGE: "The Air Flow Around a Circular Cylinder," respectively, with a voltage Ej across the whole length / of the
Philosophical Magazine, 1929, 7, p. 253. film on the surface. Also let C, and C2 be the respective capa-
A. FAGE and F. C. JOHANSEN: "The Structure of Vortex citances in parallel with the line and earth. The potential at any
Sheets," ibid., 1928, 5, p. 417. point is given by
(13) W. WEICKER: " Gesichtspunkte fur die Bestimmung der
Regenuberschlagsspannung von Freileitungs-Isolatoren," - • -JZ? = W C 2 £ ~ a j C l ( £ 2 ~ E
)
Elektrotechnik und Maschinenbau, 1923, 41, p. 429.
A. ScHWAiGER:"Elektrische Festigkeitslehre" (J. Springer,
Berlin, 1925). whence E = + D sinh /!*(/ — .x)
A. ROTH: "Hochspannungstechnik" (J. Springer, Berlin, + Dsinh
1929). where A = pc}; B = pc2; D — p{ci + c2)
(11) APPENDICES
(11.1) Field-Strength Determination with an Oscillating ^ ? = —J^—.c [BA* cosh i4*x + DA* cosh /!*(' - x)]
Ellipsoid dx A sinh /4*L
The constant K in equation (8) depends upon the dimensions
of the ellipsoid, its moment of inertia and the system of units When x = 0, dE _
used in the measurements. To calculate K it is necessary to
measure these quantities very accurately, but by suspending the When x = /, f/E „
ellipsoid in a uniform field of known strength the value of K
can be obtained directly by experiment. In this way the constant Tx^^
of the small brass ellipsoid having axes of 0-5 cm and 0-1 cm The rate of drying across the moisture2surface is proportional to
was determined by suspending the ellipsoid at the centre between l/rf£\
I'p = - ( — )
two parallel plates each 50 cm diameter and spaced 24-3 cm
apart. With 21-53kV applied, the time for 20 swings was If T is the thickness at any point and T 0 the initial thickness,
14-8 sec, whence ny was 1-35. The period of free swing was
1 -03 sec, so that k = 1 015 kV per swing per sec. then -—=A', f--^ - =kJ[-r\ T (where A:, and A:2 are constants)
The dimensions of the air condenser in which the ellipsoid was c/f V^/.v/ p \dxJ
tested for behaviour in a non-uniform field were 36 cm radius whence T=
and 3 • 75 cm radius for the outer and inner electrodes respec-
tively. A potential of 39 • 5 kV was applied to the inner electrode. p = pQekA7d) '
The calculated and observed field strengths at different radii are or
given in Table 6. and dE/dx is greatest at x = 0 and x = /. Thus it will be seen
that the rate of drying is an exponential function of the voltage
(11.2) Details of Closed-Circuit Wind Tunnel gradient, and this is greatest at the ends adjoining the electrodes,
Cross-section of tunnel = 2 ft x 2 ft. so that the moisture film will dry out on these parts first, causing
Mean length of circulation path = 20 ft. a very high concentration of stress and possibly incipient
Maximum air velocity = 700 ft/min. sparking.