ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT

DEP30013

SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS

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 CHAPTER 2:

MODULATION TECHNIQUES

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Modulation

• Modulation: carry signal information on radio frequency

• Why we need modulation?
To make special frequency (frequency carrier) that suitable to
transmission  RF
To make special wavelength that rational  antenna dimension
To make differences between transmitters
FM
Sinusoidal PM
(PAM,PWM,PPM)
Analog AM
Pulse Modulation Analog Modulation
Modulation: Digital Modulation
(PCM, DM)
Digital
(ASK, PSK, FSK)

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Modulation & Demodulation

• Information signal transported between a transmitter and

receiver over a transmission medium/channel. However,
information signal are seldom in a suitable form for
transmission.
• Modulation: process of impressing low frequency information
signal onto high frequency carrier signal.
• Demodulation: reverse process where the received signals are
transformed back to their original form.

Figure 1: Communication Model

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Principles of AM
• Amplitude Modulation (AM): process of changing the amplitude
of analog carrier signal in proportion with the amplitude of the
analog modulation signal (information signal).
• In AM, the amplitude (V) of the carrier signal is varied propotional
to the information signal. While the frequency (f) and phase (Ɵ)
of carrier signal are remains unchanged.
• The carrier amplitude is simply changed according to the
amplitude of the information signal. When the information signals
amplitude is increased, the carrier signal amplitude also increased
and vice versa.

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Principles of AM
• The information/modulating signal will modulate the amplitude
of carrier signal to produce high frequency AM modulated signal
by using AM Modulator circuit.

• The shape of AM modulated signal is called AM envelope. This

“envelope” contains the information signal.
• Relatively inexpensive
• Low-quality form of modulation: used for commercial broadcasting
of both audio and video signal.
• AM modulators are nonlinear devices  2 input (modulating signal
and carrier signal) and 1 output (AM signal),

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Figure 2: Diagram of AM
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Figure 3: AM Generation 7
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL
MODULATING SIGNAL (Vm)
Characteristics: (VAM)
- Low frequency AM Envelope = info
-eg: audio signal,
voice
-May contains single
frequency or multiple
frequency such as
human voice.

Characteristics:
- High frequency
- eg: microwave frequency
- frequency and amplitude fixed.
Figure 4 : Amplitude Modulation
Characteristics:
- The amplitude of carrier signal is varied by
the modulating signal.
- Frequency and phase remain constant
- Has 3 component frequencies:
 Carrier frequency (fc),
 Upperside frequency, (fc+fm)
 Lowerside frequency (fc-fm)
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• Generally, carrier signal can be expressed with mathematical

equation:

fc = carrier frequency
Vc = instantaneous carrier amplitude
Ø = carrier phase angle

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AM Modulation

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• There are 2 inputs to modulation device (often called modulator)

i. A single, high frequency RF carrier signal of constant
amplitude.
ii. Low frequency information signal that maybe a single
frequency or complex waveform made up of many frequency.
• In the modulator, the information modulates the RF carrier
producing a modulated waveform often called an AM envelope

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• When a modulating signal is applied to the carrier signal, the

amplitude of the output wave varies in accordance with the
modulating signal.

Figure 4: AM Generation

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• If the carrier signal: with ø = 0 for ideal case.

• The general equation for AM signal as modulated signal VAM (t):

• Condition:
 the carrier frequency, fc must be much higher than
information frequency, fs

is called envelope for AM signal

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A Frequency Spectrum & Bandwidth

• Output envelope  complex wave made up of dc voltage, the

carrier frequency and the sum (fm + fc) and difference (fc – fm)
frequencies

Figure 5: Frequency spectrum of an AM DSBFC wave

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 A Frequency Spectrum & Bandwidth

• The AM spectrum ranges from fc – fm(max) to fc + fm(max)

• Parameters:
‒ Lower sideband (LSB) = band of frequencies between fc – fm(max)
and fc
‒ Lower side frequency (LSF) = any frequency within LSB

‒ Upper sideband (USB) = band of frequencies between fc and

fc + fm(max)
‒ Upper side frequency (USF) = any frequency within USB

• Bandwidth  BW = 2fm(max)

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 COEFFICIENT OF MODULATION &
PERCENT MODULATION
• Coefficient of modulation: term to used to describe the amount of
amplitude change present in an AM waveform.
• Percent modulation: the coefficient of modulation stated as a
percentage.

Mathematical representation:

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AM Waveform

Figure 6: AM Envelope Waveform 17

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• Based on Figure 6:

Thus,

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m < 1 : under modulation
• Vm < Vc
• Signal strength obtained at the receiver is not exactly the same as
the signal strength at the transmitter.
• No distortion to the signal, just reduced signal strength.

Figure 7: m < 1, under modulation

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m = 1 : ideal modulation
• Vm = Vc
• Will produce greatest output at the receiver without distortion
• Maximum info signal amplitude is transmitted
• More info signal power is transmitted  producing stronger, more intelligible
signal
• Hard to achieve especially when the modulating signal amplitude varies
randomly over a wide range – only the peak of the signal will produce 100%
modulation.

Figure 8: m = 1, ideal modulation 20

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m > 1 : over modulation
• Vm > Vc
• Cause distortion
• Negative peaks have been clipped off.
• The original shape of the signal is destroyed.

Figure 9: m > 1, over modulation

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 AM Voltage Analysis
• Given an unmodulated carrier and modulating signal:
Vc (t) = Vc sin (2π fc t)
Vm (t) = Vm sin (2π fm t)

• The AM wave varies proportional to the amplitude of the modulating

signal and the maximum amplitude of the AM wave is: Ec + Em
• The modulated wave can be expressed as:

VAM (t) = (Vc + Vm sin 2π fm t) (sin 2π fc t)

where:

Vc = peak carrier amplitude

fc = carrier frequency
fm = modulating frequency
Vm = peak modulating amplitude / peak change in the amplitude of the envelope
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Signal frequency spectrum (DSBFC)

Figure 10: Frequency spectrum for AM DSBFC wave 24

 Exercise

• The AM signal with carrier are produced by modulating signal and

carrier signal as below:
Vc (t) = 10 sin (2π x 106)t fc = 1MHz B = 2xfm = 2kHz

Vm (t) = 3 sin (2π x 103)t fm = 1Khz

• Find:
3 / 10 = 0.3
i. Modulation index, m.
ii. Sideband frequencies and bandwidth LSB = fc - fm dan USB = Fc + fm = 1.001MHz
iii. Ratio of sideband amplitude to the carrier amplitude.
iv. Maximum and minimum peak to peak amplitude for modulated
signal
iii. mVc / 2 =sideband amplitude = 1.5 V
ratio = 1.5 / Vc = 1.5 / 10 = 0.15.

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 AM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION &
ANALYSIS
• Voltage spectrum for representing AM DSBFC wave:

Figure 11: Voltage spectrum for AM DSBFC wave

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 AM Power Distribution

• The average power dissipated in a load by an unmodulated carrier is

equal to the rms carrier voltage divided by the load resistance.

• Besides that, the upper and lower sideband power PUSB and PLSB
respectively are given as:

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• Total power in an amplitude-modulated wave is:

1000 / 800 = 1 + m(kuasa 2) / 2

(10 / 8) - 1 = m (kuasa2) / 2

m = punca kuasa 2 (0.5) = 0.707= 0.71 #

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• Note that the total power in AM envelope increases with modulation

Figure 12: Power spectrum for AM DSBFC wave

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 Exercise

• The 1000 watt AM signal is transmitted to the receiver. If the power of

the carrier is 800 watt. Find:
i. Index modulation = 0.707 = 0.71 #

ii. Total sideband power

jawapan total power sideband = 1000-800 = 200W
Pt = Pc + Pusb + Plsb

• If the carrier power is 1200w and the percentage of modulation is 90%,

find:
i. Total power Pt = Pc + Pusb + Plsb = 1200 + 243 + 243 = 1.69 kW#
ii. Total sideband power = 243 + 243 = 486 W
Pusb = Plsb = 243W #

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 Exercise

An AM Modulation equation,

VAM  (20  10 sin 1103 t ) sin 106 t

Compute the following:
a. Amplitude AM
b. Carrier frequency
c. Information frequency
d. Modulation index
e. Percentage modulation
f. Draw the frequency spectrum of AM modulation

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 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION

AM Demodulator = Envelope Detector @ Diode detector

• The AM Demodulation is performed by a circuit named Envelope

Detector.

• Envelope detector is simpler and highly effective device producing a

waveform at its output that is proportional to the real envelope of its
input.

• The output of the detector simply follows the envelope of the input
signal.

• As we know, the “envelope” of AM modulated signal contains the

information signal.

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OPERATION:
 To obtain the original info signal, AM Demodulator will detect the
“envelope” by doing these 2 processes;
i. Rectification
ii. Filtering
 Rectification – the Diode will act as Rectifier to rectify the modulated
signal to become a rectified signal.
 Filtering – the Capacitor will act as Filter to filter out the carrier signal
from rectified signal so only the “envelope” will left. Then it will
smoothed the ‘envelope” to become the original information signal.
 An additional LPF might be needed to effectively smoothen out the saw
tooth distortion of the envelope waveform after the envelope detector.

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 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION
AM Envelope = Information Signal

Rectification Filtering
Rectified signal Filtered signal = Demodulated Signal

Input

AM Envelope
= Information
Signal

AM Envelope Detector Circuit

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FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

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Frequency Modulation

• Carrier amplitude remains constant, while the carrier frequency is

changed by the modulation signal.
• Modulating signal increases, the carrier frequency increases & vice
versa.
• The frequency of the modulating signal determines how many times
per second the carrier frequency deviates above & below its nominal
carrier frequency.

Vc  Vc Sinct
Vm  Vm Sinmt
VFM  Vc Sin (ct  m f Sinmt )
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Frequency Modulation

Figure 13 : Phase and Frequency modulation ; (a) carrier signal

(b) modulating signal (c) frequency modulated wave (d) phase
modulated wave. 37
 FM vs AM CARRIER

Carrier signal

Message signal
(modulating signal)

Note: Frequency constants,

envelope varies.
AM wave

PM wave
Note: Envelope constants
phase/ frequency varies.
FM wave

Figure 14 : Illustrating AM, PM and FM signals produced by a single tone

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 Frequency Deviation
• The change in the carrier frequency is called the frequency
deviation, Δfc, typically given as the peak frequency shift in hertz.
k- sensitivity
f c  k f vm (Hz)
• For example, a sample transmitter with an assigned rest frequency
of 100MHz deviated by a ±25kHz, the carrier changes frequency
with modulation between the limits of 99.975MHz and 100.025MHz
• The total frequency change, 25kHz x 2 is called the carrier swing
• Table 1 display the transmission band that use FM and the legal
frequency deviation limit for each category
• Deviation limits are based on the quality of the intended
transmissions, wider deviation results in higher fidelity
• The frequency deviation is a useful parameter for determining the
bandwidth of the FM-signals 39
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Table1: Specifications for transmission of FM signal 40

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• Modulation index

f
mf 
fm

fd
m
fm

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Example :

A 15W unmodulated carrier is frequency modulated with a sinusoidal

signal such that the peak frequency deviation is 6 kHz. The frequency
of the modulating signal is 1 kHz. Calculate the modulation index.

f d 6 103
m  6
f m 110 3

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 Bessel Function

VFM  Vc [ J 0 (m f ) Sinc  J1 (m f )cos(c  m )t  cos(c  m )t 

 J 2 (m f )sin(c  2m )t  sin(c  2m )t 
 J 3 (m f )sin(c  3m )t  sin(c  3m )t 
 ..................]

• fc = carrier frequency
• fc ±fm = side frequency no.1
• fc ±2fm = side frequency no.2
• fc ±3fm = side frequency no.3

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• The magnitude of the rest frequency and sideband pairs is dependent

upon the index of modulation, mf and given by the Bessel function
coefficients, Jn(mf), where the subscript n of Jn is the order of the
sideband pair and mf is the modulation index. Note that Jn(mf) is all
one term and not the product of two numbers.
• Several examples might provide some insight to the meaning of
Jn(mf):
J0(1.0) represents the rest-frequency amplitude of an FM wave with
an
index of modulation equal to 1.0.
• J1(2.5) is the amplitude of the first pair of sidebands for an FM wave
with mf= 2.5.
• J7(mf) is the amplitude of the seventh pair of sidebands with an
unknown index of modulation, mf
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Graph of the Bessel coefficients/Bessel Plot

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• The function of Bessel is to determine the frequency components and

then draw the frequency spectrum.
• any side band with the relative amplitudes of less than 1% have been
ignored.
• A number of amplitude of the carrier and the sidebands have
a negative sign. This means that the signal has been shifted by 180°.

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Figure 15: Frequency spectrum for the modulation index = 1.0 (refer to
the Bessel table)

Figure 16: Frequency spectrum for the modulation index = 2.0 (refer to 48
the Bessel table)
 Bandwidth

• For FM systems, it is designed so as to transmit the main frequency

components without any distortion
• Bandwidth required for a good and efficient transmission is given by:

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Exercise:

A carrier signal with 25 MHz is modulated by a modulating sine wave

with 400 Hz, if the voltage carrier is 4V and the maximum frequency
deviation is 1 kHz. What is the formula of frequency modulated wave?

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Exercise:

An FM modulator is operating with peak frequency deviation ∆f=20KHz.

The modulating signal frequency, fm is 10KHz, and the 100KHz carrier
signal has an amplitude of 10V. Determine:

Bandwidth using Bessel Function table

Bandwidth using Carson’s Rule
Sketch the frequency spectrum for (a)

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Exercise:

For an FM modulator with modulation index m = 1, a modulation signal

Vm(t) = Vm sin (2π 1000t), an unmodulated carrier Vc(t) = 10 sin (2π
500kt), determine:

i. Number of sets of significant side frequencies

ii. Their amplitude
iii. Draw the frequency spectrum showing their relative amplitude

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Exercise:

A frequency-modulated signals are as follows:

VFM  2500 sin(2 106  2 sin 2 103 )

Calculate:
i. Carrier frequency (fc)
ii. Information frequency (fm)
iii. Modulation index (mf) & frequency deviation (∆f)
iv. Bandwidth
v. Draw the frequency spectrum (refer to Bessel table)

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 Advantage & Disadvantage of FM over
AM
• Advantages
• More efficient use of power - All
the transmitted power in FM is
useful, whereas in AM most of it in
the transmitted carrier, which
contain no useful information
• Noise reduction - Providing
greater protection from noise for
the lowest modulating frequency
• Improve system fidelity - The
transmitted amplitude is constant,
thus improving immunity to noise
and interference
• Disadvantages
• Since the reception is limited to
line of sight, the area of
reception for FM is much
smaller than AM.
• Equipment for the Tx and Rx is
more complex and expensive.
• Receiver and Transmitter must
be on the same channel
• Use greater bandwidth(10x
larger) than AM
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PHASE MODULATION(PM)

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 Phase Modulation (PM)

• Phase modulation (PM) is the process of changing the phase of

analog carrier signal in proportion with the amplitude of the
information signal
• The modulating signal only changes the phase of the carrier signal,
the amplitude and frequency of the carrier remains constant.
• As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier phase
increases and vice versa.
• The bandwidth is higher than for AM.

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PM Analysis

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PM Waveform

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Comparison of FM with PM
FM
Frequency deviation is
proportional to modulating
voltage
Noise immunity is better than
AM and PM
SNR is widely used for radio
broadcasting
It is possible to receive FM on
PM receive
Modulation index is
proportional to modulating
voltage as well as the
modulating frequency
PM
Phase deviation is proportional
to the modulating voltage
Noise immunity is better than
Am but worse than FM
PM is only used in some mobile
system
It is possible to receive PM on
FM receive
Modulation index is
proportional to modulating
voltage
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