Chapter II

Amplitude Modulation
• Introduction to Modulation:
–AMSC,DSB, SSB,VSB Comm.
• Detection of AM signals:
–Coherent detection, Envelope detection.
• Costas receiver.

1
Basic Analog Communication System

2
 Modulation
Since the baseband signal contains frequencies in audio
frequency range (3KHz), some form of frequency-band
shifting must be employed for the radio system to
operate satisfactorily.
• This process is accomplished by a device called
modulator.
• The transmitter block in any comm. system contains the
modulator device.
• The receiver block in any comm. system contains the
demodulator device.
• The modulator modulates a carrier wave which has a
frequency that is selected from an appropriate band on
the radio spectrum.
3
Thus modulation is the process of impressing a low-
frequency information signal (baseband signal) onto a
higher frequency carrier signal and one of its
parameters- such as amplitude, frequency or phase is
varied in proportion to baseband signal.

4
 Need for Modulation

1) Frequency Multiplexing.
2) Practicability of Antennas.
3) Narrowbanding.
4) Common Processing.
5) To reduce noise and ineterference.

5
1. Multiplexing
• Simultaneous transmission of multiple messages over a
channel is known as Multiplexing.
• If transmitted without modulation, different message
signals over a single channel may interfere because their
baseband (spectrum) is identical.
• Different message signals can be transmitted over a
single channel without interference using multiplexing.
• Messages from multiple users, e.g. voice signals are
multiplexed.
• The entire multiplexed signal is used to modulate the
carrier.
• At the receiver end, the signal is demodulated first and
then de-multiplexed. 6
Two types of multiplexing techniques are:
• Frequency Division Multiplexing: uses analog
modulation systems.
• Time Division Multiplexing: uses pulse
modulation systems

7
2. Practicability of Antennas
The message signal is radiated by an antenna at the
transmitter. The antennas radiate effectively when its
height is of the order of the wavelength of the signal being
transmitted. In broadcast systems, the maximum audio
frequency transmitted from a radio station is of the order
of 5 KHz. If this signal were to be transmitted without
modulation, the height of the antenna needed for an
effective radiation would be half of the wavelength given
as
 c 3108
   30, 000meters  30 Km
2 2 f 2  5 10 3

8
• It would be impracticable to construct and install such an
antenna
• The height of the antennas can be reduced by analog
modulation technique and yet achieve effective radiation.
As modulation provides frequency shifting or frequency
translation, audio frequency signals at radio stations (3Hz-
5 KHz) are translated to higher frequency spectrum (radio
frequency ranges). The higher radio frequencies with
smaller wavelength act as carrier of the audio frequencies
(modulating signal). Therefore, the height of the antenna
require is much reduced and becomes practical.
• This antenna height can be practically achieved.

9
3. Narrow banding
Let us assume that base band signal in a broadcast system is
radiated directly with the frequency range extending from
50 Hz to 10KHz, the ratio of highest to lowest wavelength
is 200. If an antenna is designed for 50Hz, it will be too
long for 10KHz and vice versa, and we may require a wide-
band antenna which can operate for band edge of 200,
which is practically impossible. However, suppose the
audio signal is translated to radio range frequency say
1MHz then ratio of lowest to highest frequency will be

106  50 1
 ,
10  10 1.01
6 4

10
which is approximately unity (highest to lowest);
and the same antenna will be suitable for the entire
band extending from (106 + 50) Hz to (106 + 104)
Hz. Thus frequency translation converts a
wideband signal to a narrowband. Here This is
called Narrow banding.

11
4. Common Processing:
We may need to process a number of signals similar
in general character but occupying different spectral
ranges. As we go from signal to signal, we need to
adjust the frequency range of our processing
apparatus to correspond to the frequency range of the
signal to be processed. Processing apparatus can be
operated in certain fixed range and other frequencies
can be translated corresponding to this fixed
frequency.

12
5. To reduce noise and interference:

Noise can be minimized to a large extent using

certain modulation techniques. These techniques
require bandwidth much larger than the
bandwidth of the signal. Thus bandwidth is
traded for noise reduction, an important aspect
of communication system design.

13
Signals and their transmission

14
 Modulation

Based on the type of

carrier wave
Continuous wave Pulse

PAM
Based on the type of PPM
modulating signal
Digital Analog PWM
PCM
ASK
FSK Based on the relationship
Linear between modulating and
PSK, etc Exponential
modulated signal
AM
FM
DSB-SC
PM
SSB
VSB
15
 Types of Modulation

• Continuous wave modulation

• Pulse modulation

If carrier wave is continuous in nature then the modulation

process is called continuous wave modulation. E.g:
Amplitude modulation and Angle modulation.
If the carrier wave is a pulse type waveform, then it is pulse
modulation. E.g: PAM, PWM, PCM

16
 Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing

the amplitude of a relatively high frequency
carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal (information).

17
Amplitude Modulation
One amplitude encodes a 0 while another amplitude encodes a 1.

18
 The Carrier
Now let’s suppose we have a carrier and the sine
waveform for it will look something like this:

19
 The Carrier and the Signal
To modulate the carrier, we have to combine it with the
electrical signal representing a voice that was produced
by the microphone.

20
 So How Do We Do It?
This signal is applied to the radio wave so that it causes the height or
amplitude of the radio wave to change as the signal changes. We
call this “amplitude modulation.” On our sine wave it looks
something like this:

21
Let’s Look At All Three

22
AM Waveforms

23
 AM Analysis

Let vc be the carrier voltage

vm be the modulating voltage
vc= Ecsinωct
vm= Emsinωmt
From definition of AM, we see that the maximum
amplitude of unmodulated carrier will have to be made
proportional to instantaneous modulating voltage
Emsinωmt when the carrier is amplitude modulated.

24
An unmodulated carrier can be described mathematically as
vc(t) = Ec sin(2πfct)
where vc(t) = time varying voltage waveform for the carrier
Ec = peak carrier amplitude (volts)
fc = carrier frequency (hertz)
For simplicity, a single audio tone is taken as the modulating
signal, it can be represented by
vm(t) = Em sin(2πfmt)
On amplitude modulation, amplitude of the carrier no longer
remains constant but varies with time as given by the following
expression:
E(t) = Ec + Em.sin(2πfmt)
Therefore, the instantaneous amplitude of the modulated carrier
voltage can be expressed as
v = E(t) sin(2πfct)
vam(t) = [Ec + Em sin(2πfmt)][sin(2πfct)]
25
where [Ec + Em sin(2πfmt)] = amplitude of the modulated wave
Em = peak change in the amplitude of the envelope (volts)
fm = frequency of the modulating signal (hertz)
Substitute Em=mEc
vam(t) = [Ec + mEc sin(2πfmt)][sin(2πfct)]
where [Ec + mEc sin(2πfmt)] equals the amplitude of the modulated
wave.
Factoring Ec from above equation and rearranging gives
vam(t) = [1+ m sin(2πfmt)][Ec sin(2πfct)]
where [1+ m sin(2πfmt)]= constant + modulating signal
[Ec sin(2πfct)] = unmodulated carrier

26
 AM Analysis
The following analysis will show how the constant component produces the carrier
components in the modulated wave and the sinusoidal component produces the side
frequencies.
vam(t) = [Ec sin(2πfct)]+ [mEc sin(2πfmt) ][sin(2πfct)]

Making use of the trigonometric identity

sin x sin y = ½[cos(x - y) – cos (x + y)]

Therefore, the equation describing the amplitude modulated wave may be written as
m Ec m Ec
vam (t )  Ec sin(2 f ct )  cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ]  cos[2 ( f c  f m )t ]
2 2
where Ec sin (2πfct) = carrier signal (volts)
-(m Ec/2) cos[2 π (fc+ fm) t = upper side frequency signal (volts)
(m Ec/2) cos[2 π (fc-fm) t] = lower side frequency signal (volts)

The band of frequencies above the carrier is term the upper sideband.
The band of frequencies below the carrier is called the lower sideband.
27
The spectrum of AM

28
 AM Analysis

Several interesting characteristics about double

sideband full carrier amplitude modulation can be
pointed as:
1. The amplitude of the carrier after modulation is the
same as it was before modulation (Ec). Therefore, the
amplitude of the carrier is unaffected by the
modulation process.
2. The amplitude of the upper and lower side
frequencies depends on both the carrier amplitude and
the coefficient of modulation.

29
3. The relative phase relationship between the carrier and
the upper and lower side frequencies is evident. The
carrier component is a +sine function, the upper side
frequency a – cosine function and the lower side
frequency a + cosine function.
4. The envelope is a repetitive waveform. Thus, at the
beginning of each cycle of the envelope, the carrier is
90° out of phase with both the upper and lower side
frequencies, the upper and lower side frequencies are
180° out of phase with each other.

30
Carrier and Side Frequency Components

31
Upper and Lower Sidebands

32
AM Spectrum

33
34
 Bandwidth
• Bandwidth of an AM signal is
equal to twice the bandwidth of the
modulating signal and covers a
range centered on the carrier
frequency
BWt = 2 x BWm.

• Bandwidth of audio signal (speech

and music) is usually 5 KHz.
Therefore, an AM radio station needs
a minimum bandwidth of 10 KHz.
Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) allows 10 KHz
for each AM station.

• AM stations are allowed carrier

frequencies anywhere between 530
and 1700 KHz. Each station’s carrier
frequency must be separated from
those on either side of it by at least 10
35
KHZ to avoid interference.
AM band allocation

36
Coefficient of Modulation and Percent Modulation
Coefficient of modulation is a term used to describe the
amount of amplitude change (modulation) present in an AM
waveform.
A measure of the extent to which a carrier voltage is varied
by the intelligent signal. Also known as modulation index
or modulation factor or depth of modulation and is
symbolized by m.

μ or m=modulation factor
=(peak value of modulating signal)/(peak value of
unmodulated carrier)
= (Em/ Ec )
0≤m≤1
0 = no modulation 1 =100% modulation 37
 For 100% modulation m = 1 and the amplitudes of
the upper and lower side frequencies are each to
one half the amplitude of the carrier( Ec/2).
Therefore, at 100% modulation
V(max) = Ec + Ec/2 + Ec/2 = 2Ec
V(min) = Ec - Ec/2 - Ec/2 = 0V

m = (Em/ Ec ) × 100
or simply m × 100 = Percent Modulation
38
Percentage Modulation Determination

39
The peak change in the amplitude of the output wave Em
is the sum of the voltages from the upper and lower side
frequencies. Therefore, since Em = Eusf + Elsf and
Eusf = Elsf, then

1 Vmax  Vmin 
Em 1
Eusf  Elsf   2  Vmax  Vmin 
2 2 4

Eusf = peak amplitude of the upper side frequency (volts)

Elsf,= peak amplitude of the lower side frequency (volts)

40
 AM waveform with different m

m <1 m  1 m > 1

41
 AM Signal Waveform
100% Modulation in AM
If the modulation index equals to unity (i.e. μ=1) then
the amplitude of the modulated signal falls to zero at
certain points. However, the envelop is still the same
shape as the baseband signal.
Over modulation in AM
If the modulation index exceeds unity (i.e. μ>1 or
μ>100%) then the envelope of the modulated signal is no
longer the same shape as the baseband signal

42
 Overmodulation
• When an excessive intelligent signal overdrives
an AM modulator producing percentage
modulation exceeding 100 percent.

• Overmodulation produces sideband splatter.

Distortion resulting in an over modulated AM
transmission creating excessive bandwidths.

43
 Carrier 50% Modulation
1 1.5
1
0.5
0.5
0 0

17
25

33

41

49
57

65

17

25

33

41

49

57

65
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1 -1.5

Modulating Signal 100% modulation

1 2
1.5
0.5 1
0.5
0 0
1

17

25

33

41

49

57

65

17
25

33

41

49

57
65
-0.5
-0.5 -1
-1.5
-1 -2

150% Modulation
3
2
1
0
1

17

25

33

41

49

57

65
-1
-2
-3

44
45
 Importance of High Percentage Modulation
• It in important to use a high a percentage of modulation as possible
while ensuring that overmodulation does not occur.

• The sidebands contain the information and have maximum power

at 100% modulation.

• Useful equation
 m2 
Pt  Pc 1  
 2 
Pt = Total transmitted power (sidebands and carrier)
Pc = Carrier power
46
 AM Power Distribution
In any electrical circuit, the power dissipated is equal to
the voltage squared divided by the resistance. Thus the
average power dissipated in a load by an unmodulated
carrier is equal to the rms carrier voltage squared, divided
by the load resistance. Mathematically, power in an
unmodulated carrier is
Pc= (0.707 Ec)2/R
= ( Ec)2/ 2R
where Pc= carrier power (watts)
Ec = peak carrier voltage (volts)
R = load resistance (ohms)
47
 AM Power Distribution (Cont..)
The upper and lower sideband powers are expressed mathematically as
Pusb= Plsb = (m Ec/2)2/2R
where m Ec/2 is the peak voltage of the upper and lower side frequencies.
Rearranging yields
Pusb= Plsb = m2Ec2/8R
where Pusb = upper sideband power (watts)
Plsb = lower sideband power (watts)

Rearranging above equation gives

Pusb= Plsb = (m2 / 4)( Ec2/2R)

we know ( Ec)2/ 2R= Pc

Putting in above we get Pusb= Plsb = (m2 Pc / 4)

It is evident from above equation that for a modulation coefficient m = 0 the

power in the upper and lower sidebands is zero and the total transmitted power
is simply the carrier power.
48
 AM Power Distribution (Cont..)
The total power in an amplitude- modulated wave is equal to the sum
of the powers of the carrier, the upper sideband, and the lower
sideband. Mathematically, the total power in an AM DSBFC
envelope is
Pt = Pc + Pusb + Plsb
Now putting values of Pusb, Plsb in above equation
Pt = Pc + m2 Pc / 4 + m2 Pc / 4
Combining terms gives
Pt = Pc + m2 Pc / 2
where (m2 Pc) / 2 is the total sideband power.
Factoring Pc gives us
 m2 
Pt  Pc 1  
 2  49
 AM Power Distribution (Cont..)
From the analysis, it can be seen that

• The carrier power in the modulated wave is same as

the carrier power in the unmodulated wave. Thus, it is
evident that the power of the carrier is unaffected by the
modulation process. Also, because the total power in the
AM wave is the sum of the carrier and the sidebands
powers, the total power in an AM envelope increases with
modulation( i.e. as m increases, Pt increases).

• With 100% modulation the maximum power in the

upper or lower sideband is equal to only one-fourth the
power in the carrier. Thus, the maximum total sideband
power is equal to one- half the carrier power.
50
 One of the most significant disadvantages of
AM-DSBFC transmission is the fact that the
information is contained in the sidebands although
most of the power is wasted in the carrier.

For this we can use relatively simple,

inexpensive demodulator circuits in the receiver,
which is the predominant advantage of AM
DSBFC

51
 Example

Determine the maximum sideband power if the carrier output is 1kW

and calculate the total maximum transmitted power.

Solution

Max sideband power occurs when m = 1 or 100%. At this percentage modulation each
side frequency is ½ the carrier amplitude.

ESF = mEc/2

Since power is proportional to the square of the voltage, each has ¼ of the carrier
power.

¼ x 1kW = 250W
Total sideband power = 2 x 250 = 500W

Total transmitted power = 1kW + 500W = 1.5kW

52
 Efficiency of AM modulation
 The Modulation Efficiency is the percentage of the total power
of the modulated signal that conveys information.
 Therefore given the equation for power of an AM waveform,
the efficiency is:
m2
  100%
2m 2

 It can be seen from this equation that the efficiency of AM

modulation increases as the modulation index, μ (m),
increases.
Normalized Peak Envelope Power (PEP) of the AM signal:

Ac2
PPEP  1  max m2
2
53
 Importance of High Percentage Modulation
Let R be the resistance into which the current flow.

2
Pt I R  I t 
2
m2
Then,     1 
t
2
Pc I R  I c 
c 2
It m2
Hence  1
Ic 2
m2
It = Ic 1+
2

It = Total transmitted current

Ic = Carrier current
m = Modulating index 54
 Effective Modulation Index
If a carrier is modulated by more than a single sine wave, the
effective modulation index is given by:

meff   1 2 3  ......
m 2
 m 2
 m 2

Note that the total modulation index must not exceed 1 or

distortion will occur.

meff can be used in all previously developed equations

using m.
55
 Usage
• Amplitude is susceptible to interference
– This technique in not normally used in modems
• Also used for two-way mobile radio communications,
such as citizens band (CB) radio.
• Use in commercial broadcasting of both audio and video
signals.
• A variation of this technique is used in AM radio
transmission
– Analog-to-analog modulation takes place

56
 AM Advantages
• Low bandwidth
• Easy to modulate, demodulate signal

57
 AM Disadvantages
• Must maintain linearity of message signal and transmitted signal.
Need to use special filters which are not as efficient as those that
do not maintain strict linearity; relates to battery lifetime

• Interfering signals received additively and must be discriminated

during demodulation

• Hard to lock frequency of receiver local oscillator to carrier

frequency (esp. in S.C. systems)

• Can use pilot tone AM to mitigate these effects

– Transmit known pilot tone either in-band or out-of-band
– PLL can detect pilot tone and lock the frequency and
amplitude of the local oscillator
58
 Types of Amplitude Modulation
• Double Sideband with full carrier (AM DSBFC): This is the
most widely used type of AM modulation. In fact, all radio
channels in the AM band use this type of modulation.

• Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC): This is the

same as the AM modulation above but without the carrier.

• Single Sideband (SSB): In this modulation, only half of the

signal of the DSBSC is used.

• Vestigial Sideband (VSB): This is a modification of the SSB to

ease the generation and reception of the signal.

59
 Linear carrier wave (CW) modulation
• Bandpass systems and signals
• Lowpass (LP) equivalents
• Amplitude modulation (AM) AM
• Double-sideband modulation (DSB)
• Modulator techniques
• Suppressed-sideband amplitude DSB
modulation (LSB, USB)
• Detection techniques of linear modulation
– Coherent detection LSB
– Non coherent detection

USB

60
Question:
Find the percentage of an AM wave whose total
power content is 2500W and whose side bands
contain 400W.
Solution:
Given, Pt = 2500W, Plsb =Pusb = 400W M=?
Pt = Pc + Plsb + Pusb
Pc = 1700W
Plsb =Pusb = m2Pc/4
Thus, m = 0.970
M= 0.970X100 = 97%
61
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