Modulation –

It is the process of changing one or more properties

( Amplitude, frequency or phase) of the analog carrier
in proportion with the information signal.
It is impractical to propagate information as it is
over standard transmission media.
Reverse process of modulation and converting the
modulated carrier back to the original information is
known as demodulation.
i.e. At the receiver, the base signal regenerates by
removing the carrier signal and filtering the signal to
remove any unwanted noise. This process is
‘Demodulation’.
 Modulation
 We all know that most signals generated in everyday life are
sinusoidal waveforms.
 Modern signals include the basic sinusoidal form signal containing
important information.
 Modulation is the branch of science in electronics and
communication systems including varying the fundamental properties
of the basic signal by superimposing it with a carrier signal to carry
the signal from one location to the other. This process is ‘Modulation’.
Why Modulation is necessary? –

1. It is difficult to radiate LF signal from antenna in

the form of EM energy.
2. Information signal often occupy the same
frequency band that would interfere with each other.
(Channel is a specific band of frequencies allocated
to a particular service.)
Need of Modulation
1.Reduction in the height of antenna
For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple
of λ/4 , where λ is the wavelength .
λ = c /f
where c : is the velocity of light
 f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted
The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10
kHz is calculated as follows :

The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install .

Now, let us consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz . The minimum antenna
height is given by,

This antenna can be easily installed practically . Thus, modulation reduces the
height of the antenna .
2. Avoids mixing of signals

 If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the

modulation by more than one transmitter, then all the signals will be
in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20 kHz . Therefore, all the signals
get mixed together and a receiver can not separate them from each
other .
 Hence, if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different
carrier then they will occupy different slots in the frequency domain
(different channels). Thus, modulation avoids mixing of signals .

3. Increase the Range of Communication

 The frequency of baseband signal is low, and the low frequency

signals can not travel long distance when they are transmitted . They
get heavily attenuated .
 The attenuation reduces with increase in frequency of the transmitted
signal, and they travel longer distance .
 The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be
transmitted. Therefore, it increases the range of communication.
4. Multiplexing is possible
Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can
be transmitted over the same communication channel
simultaneously .
This is possible only with modulation.
The multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by
many signals.
Hence, many TV channels can use the same frequency
range, without getting mixed with each other or different
frequency signals can be transmitted at the same time.
5. Improves Quality of Reception
with frequency modulation (FM) and the digital
communication techniques such as PCM, the effect of
noise is reduced to a great extent . This improves quality
of reception .
Types of Modulation –
1. Analog Modulation – (a) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– If information signal is analog and amplitude of the
carrier is varied proportional to amplitude information
signal, AM is produced.
(b) Frequency Modulation (FM) – If frequency of carrier
signal is varied proportional to information signal, FM is
produced.
(c) Phase Modulation (PM) –If phase of carrier is varied
proportional to amplitude of information signal, PM is
produced.
Amplitude Modulation: The modulation in where
the amplitude of the base signal changes or
modulates by superimposing it with a carrier signal of
a different amplitude and same frequency as the base
signal.
Amplitude modulation
Frequency Modulation: The modulation in where
the frequency of the base signal changes by
superimposing it with a carrier signal having a
different frequency is Frequency Modulation.
Phase Modulation: The modulation in where the
phase of the carrier signal modifies by superimposing
it with a carrier signal is Phase Modulation.
2. Digital Modulation –(a) If the information
signal is digital and amplitude of carrier is varied
proportional to information signal, a digitally
modulated signal known as Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK) is produced.
(b) If frequency of the carrier is varied, Frequency
shift Keying (FSK) is produced.
(c) If phase of the carrier is varied , Phase Shift
Keying (PSK) is produced.
If both Amplitude and Phase are varied
proportional to the information signal, Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation QAM is produced.
 Digital-to-analog conversion
• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of
the characteristics of an analog signal (carrier signal) based on
the information in digital data.

Digital /Analog Analog /Digital

converter converter
 Why we need digital modulation

- Digital modulation is required if digital data has

to be transmitted over a medium that only
allows analog transmission.
- Modems in wired networks.
- Wireless must use analogue sine waves.

15
16
 Modulation &
Demodulation
Radio
Carrier Carrier
Channel

Baseband Synchronization/
Modulation Detection/ Decision

Data in Data out

 Why Carrier?

• Effective radiation of EM waves requires

antenna dimensions comparable with the
wavelength:
– Antenna for 3 kHz would be ~100 km long
– Antenna for 3 GHz carrier is 10 cm long
• Sharing the access to the telecommunication
channel resources
 Amplitude Shift
Keying (ASK)
Baseba
nd
Dat 1 0 0 1
ASK
a
mod
ulate
d Acos( Acos(
sign t) t)
al shaping can be employed to remove spectral
• Pulse
spreading
• ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is
heavily affected by noise, fading, and interference
 Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK)
• In ASK the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to
represent binary 1 or 0.
• Carrier signal is a high frequency signal that acts as a basis for the
information signal.
• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
• The peak amplitude of the signal during each bit duration is constant, and its
value depends on the bit (0 or 1).

20
 Pros and Cons
- Pros:
ASK transmitter and receiver are simple to design.
ASK needs less bandwidth than FSK.

- Cons:
ASK transmission can be easily corrupted by noise.

- Application:
Early telephone modem (AFSK).
ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
 FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
- The frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or
0.
- Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant while the
frequency changes.
- The frequency of the signal during each bit duration is constant,
and its value depends on the bit (0 or 1).

22
 Digital Modulation (FSK)
- Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
- 0 and 1 represented by different frequencies.
- Switch between two oscillators accordingly.
- Twice the bandwidth but more resilient to error.

23
 PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
- The phase of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0.
- Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant while the
phase changes.
- The phase of the signal during each bit duration is constant, and its
value depends on the bit (0 or 1).
 Digital Modulation Summary
Amplitude Shift Frequency Shift Phase Shift Keying
Keying (ASK) Keying (FSK) (PSK)

• Very simple. • Needs larger • More complex.

bandwidth.

• Low bandwidth • More error resilience • Robust against

requirements than AM. interference.

• Very susceptible to
interference

25
Digital Modulation Summary
 FSK Modulator
- One way to think about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two
carrier frequencies

Switch between two oscillators accordingly

27
 ASK and FSK
- Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
1- Very simple.
2- Low bandwidth requirements.
3- Very susceptible to interference.

- Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

1- Needs larger bandwidth.
2- More error resilience than AM.
 FSK Modulator

Implement a BFSK modulation that use the following carriers:

1- fc1 = 100 Hz and fc2 = 20Hz
2- fc1 = 180 Hz and fc2 = 50Hz
3- fc1 = 85 Hz and fc2 = 30Hz
 Introduction

- A digital signal is superior to an analog signal

because it is more robust to noise and can easily
be recovered, corrected and amplified.

- For this reason, the tendency today is to change an

analog signal to digital data.

- Changing analog signal to digital signal:

Sampling  Quantizing

30
31
 Pulse-code Modulation (PCM)

- Pulse-code Modulation (PCM), like PAM, is a

digital communication technique that sends
samples of the analog signal taken at a
sufficiently high rate.

- PCM differs than PAM in that it quantizes the

samples by constraining them to only take a
limited number of values, and then converts each
value into a binary string of bits that are
transmitted on the communication line.

32
 Pulse-code Modulation (PCM)
- PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog
signal:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Binary encoding

- Before we sample, we have to filter the signal to limit

the maximum frequency of the signal as it affects the
sampling rate.

- Filtering should ensure that we do not distort the

signal, i.e. remove high frequency components that
affect the signal shape.
33
Components of PCM Encoder

34
 Sampling

- Analog signal is sampled every Ts secs.

- Ts is referred to as the sampling interval or period.

- fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling

frequency.

- The process is referred to as pulse amplitude

modulation PAM and the outcome is a signal with
analog (non integer) values.

35
 Note

- According to the Nyquist theorem,

the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the
highest frequency contained in the signal.

36
37
 Quantization

- In order to process the sampled signal digitally, the

sample values have to be quantized to a finite
number of levels, and each value can then be
represented by a string of bits.

- To quantize a sample value is to round it to the

nearest point among a finite set of permissible
values.

- Therefore, a distortion will inevitably occur. This

is called quantization noise (or error).
38
 Quantization
- Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying
amplitude values ranging between two limits: a min
and a max.

- The amplitude values are infinite between the two

limits.

- We need to map the infinite amplitude values onto a

finite set of known values.

- This is achieved by dividing the distance between min

and max into L zones, each of height height
 = (max - min)/L

39
 Quantization Levels
- The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value
from 0 to L-1 (resulting in L values)

40
- Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated
to the value of the midpoint.

3
2
1
0

n
approximating the value of the sample amplitude to the
quantized values.

41
 Assigning Codes to Zones
- Each zone is then assigned a binary code.

- The number of bits required to encode the zones,

or the number of bits per sample as it is commonly
referred to, is obtained as follows:
nb = log2 L

- Given our example, nb = 2

- The 4 zone (or level) codes are therefore: 00, 01,

10, 11

42
 Assigning Codes to Zones

11 3
10 2
01 1
00 0

n
Each zone is assigned a binary code

43
 Assigning Codes to Zones

Use one of the line code scheme to get the digital signal

44
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
The most common technique for using digital signals to
encode analog data is PCM.

Example: To transfer analog voice signals off a local loop to

digital end office within the phone system, one uses a codec.

Because voice data limited to frequencies below 4000 HZ, a

codec makes 8000 samples/sec. (i.e., 125
microsecond/sample).

If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher

than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples
contain all the information of the original signal.
Cont’d
Analog signal is sampled.
Converted to discrete-time continuous-amplitude signal
(Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
Pulses are quantized and assigned a digital value.
A 7-bit sample allows 128 quantizing levels.
PCM uses non-linear encoding, i.e., amplitude spacing of
levels is non-linear
There is a greater number of quantizing steps for low
amplitude
This reduces overall signal distortion.
This introduces quantizing error (or noise).
PCM pulses are then encoded into a digital bit stream.
8000 samples/sec x 7 bits/sample = 56 Kbps for a single
voice channel.
PCM Block Diagram

•Most common form of analog to digital modulation

•Four step process
- Signal is sampled using PAM (sampled)
- Integer values assigned to signal (PAM)
- Values converted to binary (Quantized)
- Signal is digitally encoded for transmission
(Encoded)
PCM Example
Quantization
 a process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a finite
number of conditions (rounding off the amplitudes of flat-top samples
to a manageable number of levels).
Block diagram of PCM

51
PCM Transmitter

52
•LPF: Here, the message signal which is in the continuous time form, is allowed
to pass through a low pass filter (LPF). This LPF whose cutoff frequency is f m
eliminates the high-frequency components of the signal and passes only the
frequency components that lie below fm.
•Sampler: The output of the LPF is then fed to a sampler where the analog input
signal is sampled at regular intervals. The sampling of the signal is done at the
rate of fs. This sampling frequency is so selected that it must follow the sampling
theorem that is expressed as:
fs ≥ 2fm
The output of the sampler is a signal that is discrete time continuous amplitude
signal denoted as nTs which is nothing but a PAM signal.
Quantizer: A quantizer is a unit that rounds off each sample to the nearest
discrete level. The sampler provides a continuous range signal and hence still an
analog one. The quantizer performs the approximation of each sample thus
assigning it a particular discrete level.
As it basically rounds off the value to a certain level this shows some variation by
the actual amount. Thus we can say, quantizing a signal introduces some
distortion or noise into it. This is known as quantization error.
53
Encoder: An encoder performs the conversion of the quantized
signal into binary codes. This unit generates a digitally encoded
signal which is a sequence of binary pulses that acts as the
modulated output.

Transmission path in a PCM system

•A PCM system has a better control over signal distortion
introduced during transmission through the channel than other
systems.
•PCM achieves low signal distortion by employing regenerative
receivers along the transmission path.
•The channel introduces distortion in the signal during
transmission.
•This distortion is eliminated by the regenerator in order to
provide a distortionless PCM signal. Resultantly, enhancing the
transmission ability of the system.
BDG(xx) 54
• The PCM signal when provided to the regenerative repeater,
• the equalizer circuit at the beginning performs the reshaping of the
distorted signal.
• At the same time, the timing circuit generates a pulse train that is a
derivative of input PCM pulses.
• This pulse train is then utilized by the decision-making device in order to
sample the PCM pulses.
• This sampling is done at the instant where maximum SNR can be
achieved.
• In this way, the decision-making device generates the distortionless PCM
wave. 55
 PCM Receiver:

•Regenerator: A regenerative repeater is placed at the receiving end also so as to have

an exact PCM transmitted signal. Here, also the regenerator works in a similar manner
as that when employed in the transmission path. It eliminates the channel induced
noise and reshapes the pulse.
•DAC and Sampler: Digital to analog converter performs the conversion of digital signal
again into its analog form by making use of the sampler. As the actual message signal
was analog thus at the receiver end there is a necessity to again convert it into its
original form.
•LPF: The sampler generates analog signal but that is not the original message signal.
Thus, the output of the sampler is fed to the LPF having cutoff frequency f m. This is
sometimes termed as the reconstruction filter that produces the original message
signal.
The process done at the transmitter is somewhat reversed at the receiver in order to
generate the original analog message signal

56
Transmission bandwidth in Pulse Code Modulation:
•It is associated with a number of bits per sample.
•If the number of bits per sample increases, the bandwidth also increases.
• In order to have a good approximation, a large number of levels must be used but
that will lead to a larger bandwidth requirement.
Let us consider each quantizer level is represented by ‘n’ binary digits. Then the
levels represented by n binary digits is given as,
q = 2n
: q is the digital level of the quantizer
Every sample is changed into n bits, thus, a number of bit per sample is ‘n’.
As we have already discussed the number of samples per second is fs. Hence the
number of bits per second which is also termed as signalling rate is given as,

r = n fs
As transmission bandwidth is half the signalling rate, hence, r = nf s

But we know, f ≥ 2f Thus the bandwidth of the PCM system is ,

s m

BW ≥ n f m
Advantages of PCM

1.Immune to channel induced noise and distortion.

2.Repeaters can be employed along the transmitting channel.
3.Encoders allow secured data transmission.
4.It ensures uniform transmission quality.

Disadvantages of PCM

1.Pulse code modulation increases the transmission bandwidth.

2.A PCM system is somewhat more complex than another system.

Thus , we can conclude that a PCM system, transmits data in a coded format, that
ensures secured transmission. But, this at the same time needs decoding system in
order to reproduce exact message signal that increases system complexity.
58
Digital modulation
Is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals
(carriers) between two or more points in a
communications system.
Can be propagated through Earth’s atmosphere and
used in wireless communication system - digital radio

Applications:
 Low speed voice band data comm. modems
 High speed data transmission systems
 Digital microwave & satellite comm. systems
 PCS (personal communication systems) telephone
Why digital modulation?
The modulation of digital signals with analogue
carriers allows an improvement in signal to noise ratio
as compared to analogue modulating schemes.
 Important Criteria
1. High spectral efficiency
2. High power efficiency
3. Robust to multipath
4. Low cost and ease of implementation
5. Low carrier-to-co channel interference ratio
6. Low out-of-band radiation
7. Constant or near constant envelop
8. Bandwidth Efficiency
Ability to accommodate data within a
limited bandwidth
Tradeoff between data rate and pulse

width
9. Power Efficiency
To preserve the fidelity of the digital

message at low power levels.

Can increase noise immunity by increasing

signal power
 M-ary Encoding
It is often advantageous to encode at a level higher than
binary where there are more then two conditions possible.
The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of
conditions is expressed mathematically as

N  log 2 M
Where N = number of bits necessary
M = number of conditions, level or combinations
possible with N bits.

• Each symbol represents n bits, and has M signal states,

where M = 2n. This is called M-ary signaling.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
BPSK
Bit value 0 – sine wave
Bit value 1 – inverted sine wave
Very simple PSK
Low spectral efficiency
Robust , used in satellite system
 QPSK
2 bits coded as one symbol
Symbol determines shift of sine wave
Needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK
More complex
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK)

sin (2 fc t  3 4) for 0 0 

sin (2 fc t   4) for 0 1 

SQPSK (t)  
= sin (2 fc t  3 4) for 1 0 
sin (2 fc t   4) for 1 1 
 About QPSK Signal
Table : Symbols,
cos(2πfct)

Bits and Phase Shift Symbol 10 Symbol 11

Symbo Binary Phase shift in QPSK

l input Signal -sin(2πfct) sin(2πfct)

s1 0 0 -135° or –3π/4 radians

Symbol 00 Symbol 01

-cos(2πfct)
s2 0 1 -45° or –π/4 radians

1 0 +135° or 3π/4 radians

Figure :
s3
Constellation
s4 1 1 +45° or π/4 radians Diagram
CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM
Graphical representation of the complex envelope of
each possible symbol state

 The x-axis represents the in-phase component

and the y-axis the quadrature component of the
complex envelope

The distance between signals on a constellation

diagram relates to how different the modulation
waveforms are and how easily a receiver can
differentiate between them.
QPSK:
 The main problem with BPSK and DPSK is that the speed of
data transmission in a given bandwidth is limited.

 One way to increase the binary data rate while not

increasing the bandwidth required for the signal transmission
is to encode more than 1 bit per phase change.

There is a symbol change for each bit change with BPSK and
DPSK, so the baud (symbol) rate is the same as the bit rate
QPSK:
One commonly used system for doing this is known as
quadrature, quarternary, or quadra phase PSK (QPSK or 4-
PSK).
In QPSK, each pair of successive digital bits in the
transmitted word is assigned a particular phase.
Each pair of serial bits, called a dibit, is represented by a
specific phase.
QPSK Modulator
QPSK Modulator Working
It consists of a 2-bit shift register implemented with
flip-flops, commonly known as a bit splitter.
The serial binary data train is shifted through this
register, and the bits from the two flip-flops are
applied to balanced modulators.
The carrier oscillator is applied to balanced
modulator 1 and through a 90° phase shifter to
balanced modulator 2.
The outputs of the balanced modulators
are linearly mixed to produce the QPSK signal.
QPSK Demodulator
Working:
The carrier is applied to balanced modulator 1 and is
shifted 90° before being applied to balanced
modulator 2. The outputs of the two
balanced modulators are filtered and shaped into
bits.
The 2 bits are combined in a shift register and shifted
out to produce the originally transmitted binary
signal
Advantages
Higher data rates can be achieved using same
bandwidth.

Disadavantages:
Modulator and demodulator circuit is complex as
compare to BPSK

Applications:
Used in wireless LAN
Satellite broadcasting
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)
QAM
Combine amplitude and phase modulation
It is possible to code n bits using one symbol
2n discrete levels, n = 2 identical to QPSK
BER increase with n, but less compared to PSK
scheme.
Concept of QAM
QAM. One of the most popular modulation
techniques used in modems for increasing
the number of bits per baud is quadrature amplitude
modulation (QAM).
 QAM uses both amplitude and phase modulation of a
carrier; not only are different phase shifts produced,
but also the amplitude of the carrier is varied.
QAM
In 8-QAM, there are four
possible phase shifts, as in
QPSK, and two different carrier
amplitudes, so that eight
different states can be
transmitted.
With eight states, 3 bits can be
encoded for each baud or
symbol transmitted.
 Each 3-bit binary word
transmitted uses a different
phase-amplitude combination.
QAM Modulator
A block diagram of an 8-QAM modulator is shown in Fig. 11-30.
The binary data to be transmitted is shifted serially into the 3-bit
shift register.
These bits are applied in pairs to two 2-to-4 level converters. A 2-
to-4 level converter circuit, basically a simple D/A converter,
translates a pair of binary inputs into one of four possible dc
output voltage levels.
The idea is to produce four voltage levels corresponding to the
different combinations of 2 input bits, i.e., four equally spaced
voltage levels.
These are applied to the two balanced modulators fed by the
carrier oscillator and a 90° phase shifter, as in a QPSK
modulator.
Each balanced modulator produces four different output phase-
amplitude combinations.
When these are combined in the linear mixer, eight different
phase-amplitude combinations are produced. The most critical
part of the circuit is the 2-to-4 level converters;
these must have very precise output amplitudes so that when they
are combined in the linear summer, the correct output and phase
combinations are produced.
Applications
QAM signals are used in cable TV modems,
 wireless local area networks (WLANs),
satellites,
 high-speed fixed broadband wireless applications.
 Amplitude and phase shift keying can be combined to transmit
several bits per symbol.
 Often referred to as linear as they require linear amplification.
 More bandwidth-efficient, but more susceptible to noise.

 For M = 4, 16QAM has the largest distance between points, but

requires very linear amplification. 16PSK has less stringent
linearity requirements, but has less spacing between
constellation points, and is therefore more affected by noise.

 High level M-array schemes (such as 64-QAM) are very

bandwidth-efficient but more susceptible to noise and require
linear amplification
CONCLUSION
To decide which modulation method should be used , we
need to make considerations of

a) Bandwidth

b) Speed of Modulation

c) Complexity of Hardware