Modulation and Multiplexing

Joe Montana
IT 488 - Fall 2003

1
 Agenda

• Modulation Concept
• Analog Communication
• Digital Communication
• Digital Modulation Schemes
• Error Detection and Correction

2
Modulation

3
Why Modulate Signals?
If we transmit signal through electromagnetic waves, we
need antennas to recover them at a remote point.
At low frequencies (baseband), the wavelengths are
very large.
Ex. Voice, at approx. 4 kHz, has a wavelength of 75 Km!!
If we “move” those signals to higher frequencies, we
can get more manageable antennas.
After receiving the signal, we need to “move” them back
to the original frequency band (baseband) through
demodulation.
Therefore, you can see the modulation task as “giving
wings” to the information message.
4
Modulation – Basic Principles
Modulation is achieved by varying the amplitude,
phase or frequency of a high frequency sinusoid.
The initial high frequency sinusoid that will have
a parameter modified is called the “Carrier”.
The original message signal (baseband) is called
the “Modulating” signal.
The resulting bandpass signal is the “Modulated”
signal, which is a combination of the carrier and
the original message.

5
Modulation – Basic Principles
Modulating Action on carrier’s Modulated Signal
Signal V(t), at amplitude, frequency carrying the
baseband(fB) or phase information of
V(t), bandpass (fC)

Carrier (fC)
fC

fC

6
 MODULATION AND
MULTIPLEXING - 1
MODULATION
THIS IS THE WAY INFORMATION IS
ENCAPSULATED FOR TRANSMISSION
MULTIPLEXING
THIS IS THE WAY MORE THAN ONE LINK
CAN BE CARRIED OVER A SINGLE
COMMUNICATIONS CHANNEL

WE WILL BE LOOKING AT MODULATION

INITIALLY, BUT WHERE DO MODULATION
AND MULTIPLEXING FIT INTO A SYSTEM?
7
MODULATION AND
MULTIPLEXING - 2

Fig. 5.1 in text: (A) At uplink earth station (B) At downlink earth station

8
MODULATION AND
MULTIPLEXING - 3
KEY POINTS
You have to multiplex before
modulating on the transmit side (that is,
you have to get all of the output signals
together prior to modulating onto a carrier)
You have to demodulate before
demultiplexing on the receive side (that
is, before you can separate - i.e. demultiplex
- the incoming signals, you have to
demodulate the carrier to obtain the
transmitted information)
9
Analog Communications

10
ANALOG TELEPHONY - 1
Baseband voice signal
300 - 3400 Hz (CCITT, now called ITU-T)
300 - 3100 Hz (Bell)
We will use the ITU-T definition

11
ANALOG TELEPHONY - 2
KEY POINT
THE NUMBER OF VOICE CHANNELS A SATELLITE
TRANSPONDER CAN CARRY VARIES INVERSELY
WITH THE AVERAGE POWER LEVEL PER
CHANNEL

Simple Example

NOTE:A pessimistic choice (power level set too high)

will lower capacity estimate; An optimistic choice
(power level set too low) can reduce quality of signals
12
 CHANNEL LOADING
EXAMPLE - 1
A 25 W transponder is designed to carry 250 two-way telephone
channels (giving 500 channels at RF).
Q1. How much power is available for each telephone channel?
Answer: Power per channel = (25) / (500) = 50 mW
Q2. If the amplifier requires to be backed off 3 dB to preserve
linearity, what is the power available per telephone channel now?
Answer: Power per channel = (25/2) / (500) = 25 mW
Q2. What is the power per channel in the second case if 1000 RF
channels are carried?
Answer: Power per channel = (25 mW) / 2 = 12.5 mW
13
SATELLITE ANALOG
Satellite transponders are bandwidth limited
A flexible scheme is therefore required for
loading analog voice channels
earth stations may transmit in multiples of 12
voice channels (from 12 to 1872)

NOTE: There is very little analog (FM) voice traffic over satellites
now. The bulk of the high capacity traffic is carried over optical
fibers. The majority of voice capacity is in small digital carriers
called IDR (Intermediate Digital Rate)
14
FREQUENCY MODULATION - 1
DEFINITION
“Frequency modulation results when the
deviation, f, of the instantaneous frequency,
f, from the carrier frequency fc is directly
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating voltage”.

LET’S LOOK AT THIS PICTORIALLY

15
FREQUENCY MODULATION - 1
Input voltage

Transfer
Vmax characteristic

Instantaneous
Range of Input Input Voltage
Voltage, v(t)
Instantaneous
Vmin Output
Frequency
f
Output
Frequency
NOTE: In this
Range of Output
example, fmin = the Frequency
carrier frequency, fc f min f max

16
FREQUENCY MODULATION - 2
Schematic representation
of a sinusoidal modulating
signal, vp, on a carrier
signal, frequency fc

NOTE: instantaneous
frequency increases with
increase in modulating
voltage, and vice versa
17
FREQUENCY MODULATION - 3
The Frequency Modulated output signal, v FM t  , will be as
follows:
c = 2fc = carrier Maximum angular frequency
radian frequency deviation of the modulator

    
v FM t   vt   A cos  c t    sin  mod t  (5.2)
   mod  

Maximum value of input

modulating radian frequency

18
CARSON’S RULE - 1
Carson’s rule states that the transmission bandwidth, BT,

B  2 f  f mod 
is given by:

Where B is the bandwidth of the modulating signal

which, for a sinusoidal modulating signal, is the highest
modulating frequency, fmod.

19
CARSON’S RULE - 2
A. Single-frequency sinusoid:
Approximate value for required bandwidth B:
B  2 f  f mod  (5.5)

Maximum Modulating
frequency deviation frequency

B. Real signal (practical case):

Approximate value for required bandwidth B:
B  2 f  f max  (5.6)

Maximum modulating
frequency
20
FM IMPROVEMENT
FM modulation is relatively inefficient with the use of
transmission spectrum
A small baseband bandwidth is converted into a
large RF bandwidth
FM demodulation and detection converts the wide RF
bandwidth occupied into a small baseband bandwidth
occupied
Ratio of RF to baseband bandwidths gives an
improvement in signal to noise ratio which leads
to the so-called FM IMPROVEMENT

21
Digital Communications

22
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS -1
§5.4 in Chapter 5 + updated material
Many signals originate in digital form
data from computers
data from digital fixed and mobile systems
digitized information (e.g. voice)
World-wide network is moving towards
all-digital system
Computers can only handle digital
signals
23
Why Digital Transmission?
Robustness
Generally less susceptible to degradations
But...when it does degrade tends to fail quickly
Adaptiveness
Can easily combine a mix of signal information
• Data, voice, video, multiple user signals
Compatibility - with digital storage, etc.
Security - not easily received except by
recipient

24
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS -2
At baseband, send  V (volts) to
represent a logical 1 and 0
At RF - digitally modulate the carrier
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
FSK Frequency Shift Keying
PSK Phase Shift Keying
Binary forms of these are
OOK, BFSK, and BPSK, respectively
Let’s first look at basic Digital Communications from
the book by COUCH (7th. Edition) 25
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS -3

NOTE:
from Couch

26
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS - 4

From Couch,
Fig. 3-15

27
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS - 5

From Couch,
Fig. 3-13

28
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS - 5
Analog-to-Digital recap; we have:
Sampled at 2 times highest frequency
Stored the sampled value
Compared stored value with a quantized level
Selected the nearest quantized level
Turned the selected quantized level into a digital
value using the selected number of bits
We now need to generate a line code

Line Codes are serial bit streams that

are used to drive the digital modulator
29
 LINE CODES - 1
Couch Fig.
3-15

Usually
used in
digital
circuits

Always
have net
zero
voltage
30
LINE CODES - 2
SELECTION OF LINE CODE BASED ON
NEED TO HAVE SYNCHRONIZATION (OR
OTHERWISE)
NEED TO HAVE A NET ZERO VOLTAGE (OR
OTHERWISE)
NEED TO PREVENT STRING OF SAME
VOLTAGE LEVEL SIGNALS
SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY
SOME TYPICAL SPECTRA
31
TYPICAL SPECTRA

Couch
Fig. 2-6

32
PULSE SPECTRA
A random train of ones and zeroes has a spectrum
(power spectral density) of
2
 sin fTb 
G f   Tb  
 2  fTb 
sin X (5.40)
 Tb
X2
X = fTb, Tb = bit period, and f = frequency in Hz
Max value of Tb at f = 0 Filtering affects
the pulse shape
G(f) extends to f =  33
EFFECT OF FILTERING - 1

Fig. 5.8 in text

34
EFFECT OF FILTERING - 2
Rectangular pulses (i.e. infinite rise and fall
times of the pulse edges) need an infinite
bandwidth to retain the rectangular shape
Communications systems are always band-
limited, so
send a SHAPED PULSE
Attempt to MATCH the filter to the spectrum
of the energy transmitted

Before FILTERS, let’s look at Inter-Symbol Interference

35
INTER-SYMBOL INTERFERENCE
Sending pulses through a band-limited channel
causes “smearing” of the pulse in time
“Smearing” causes the tail of one pulse to extend
into the next (later) pulse period
Parts of two pulses existing in the same pulse
period causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
ISI reduces the amplitude of the wanted pulse
and reduces noise immunity

Example of ISI
36
ISI - contd. - 1

Form Couch, Fig. 3-23

37
ISI - contd. - 2
To avoid ISI, you can SHAPE the pulse so
that there is zero energy in adjacent pulses
Use NRZ; pulse lasts the full bit period
Use Polar Signaling (+V & -V); average value is
zero if equal number of 1’s and 0’s
Communications links are usually AC coupled so
you should avoid a DC voltage component
Then use a NYQUIST filter

Nyquist Filter???
38
NYQUIST FILTER - 1
Bit Period is Tb
Sampling of the signal is usually at intervals
of Tb
Thus, if we could generate pulses that are at
a one-time maximum at t = Tb and zero at
each succeeding interval of Tb (i.e. t = 2Tb,
3Tb, ….. , NTb then we would have no ISI
This is called a NYQUIST filter
39
NYQUIST FILTER - 2

Sampling
instant is
CRITICAL

Impulse at
this point t
0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 40
NYQUIST FILTER - 3
NOTE: At each
sampling interval,
there is only one
pulse contribution
- the others being
at zero level

Fig. 5.9 in text

41
NYQUIST FILTER - 4
Arranging to sample at EXACTLY the
right instant is the “Zero ISI” technique,
first proposed by Nyquist in 1928
Networks which produce the required
time waveforms are called “Nyquist
Filters”. None exist in practice, but you
can get reasonably close

42
NYQUIST FILTER - 5
Noise into receiver must be held to a minimum
Place half of Nyquist filter at transmit end of link,
half at receive end, so that the individual filter
transfer function H(f) is given by
Vr(f)NYQUIST = H(f)  H(f)
H(f) matches pulse
characteristic,
 
H f  Vr ( f ) NYQUIST hence it is called a
Filter is a “Square Root Raised Cosine“matched
Filter” filter”

Matched Filter
43
 MATCHED FILTER - 1
f f

Roll-off factor =  = (f / f0 )

6 dB
where f0 = 6 dB bandwidth
B = absolute bandwidth (here
shown for  = 0.5) and
f1 f0 B
B = f + f0
f1 = start of ‘roll-off’ of the
filter characteristic

Fig. 5.10 in text

44
MATCHED FILTER - 2
A Raised Cosine Filter gives a Matched
Filter response
The “Roll-Off Factor”, , determines
bandwidth of Raised Cosine Low Pass Filter
(LPF)
Gives zero ISI when the output is sampled
at correct time, with sampling rate of Rb (i.e.
at a sampling interval of Tb)
BUT how much bandwidth is required
for a given transmission rate???
45
BANDWIDTH REQUIRED - 1
Bandwidth required depends on whether
the signal is at BASEBAND or at
PASSBAND
Bandwidth needed to send baseband digital
signal using a Nyquist LPF is
Bandwidth = (1/2)Rb(1 + )
Bandwidth needed to send passband digital
signal using a Nyquist Bandpass filter is
bandwidth = Rb(1 + )
NOTE: It is the Symbol Rate that is
key to bandwidth, not the Bit Rate
46
BANDWIDTH REQUIRED - 2
SYMBOL RATE is the number of digital
symbols sent per second
BIT RATE is the number of digital bits sent
per second
Different modulation schemes will “pack”
different numbers of Bits in a single Symbol
BPSK has 1 bit per symbol
QPSK has 2 bits per symbol

47
BANDWIDTH REQUIRED - 3
OCCUPIED BANDWIDTH, B, for a signal
is given by B = Rs ( 1 +  ) where Rs is
the symbol rate and  is the filter roll-off
factor
NOISE BANDWIDTH, BN, for a channel
will not be affected by the roll-off factor of
filter. Thus BN = Rs

48
BANDWIDTH EXAMPLE - 1
GIVEN:
Bit rate 512 kbit/s
QPSK modulation
Filter roll-off, , is  = 0.3
FIND: Occupied Bandwidth, B, and Noise
Bandwidth, BN
2 bits per Number
SOLUTION: symbol of bits/s
Symbol Rate = Rs = (1/2)  (512 
103)
= 256  103
49
BANDWIDTH EXAMPLE - 2
Occupied Bandwidth, B, is
B = Rs (1 +  )
= 256  103 ( 1 + 0.3)
= 332.8 kHz
Noise Bandwidth, BN, is
BN = Rs = 256 kHz
Now what happens if you have FEC?
Example with FEC
50
BANDWIDTH EXAMPLE - 3
SAME Example, but 1/2-rate FEC is now used
2 bits per 1/2-rate Number
SOLUTION symbol FEC used of bits/s
Symbol Rate, Rs = (1/2)  (2)  (512  103)
= 512  103 symbols/s
Occupied Bandwidth, B, is
B = Rs ( 1 +  )
= 665.6 kHz

51
BANDWIDTH EXAMPLE - 3
Noise Bandwidth, BN, is
BN = Rs = 512  103 = 512 kHz
Summary:
High Modulation Index  More Bandwidth
Efficient
FEC (Block or Convolutional)  Increases
bandwidth required

52
Digital Modulations

53
Digital Modulations
In digital communications, the modulating signal is
a binary or M-ary data.
The carrier is usually a sinusoidal wave.
Change in Amplitude: Amplitude-Shift-Keying (ASK)
Change in Frequency: Frequency-Shift-Keying
(FSK)
Change in Phase: Phase-Shift-Keying (PSK)
Hybrid changes (more than one parameter).
Ex. Phase and Amplitude change: Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

54
Binary Modulations – Basic Types

These two have

constant envelope
(important for
amplitude sensitive
channels)

55
Coherent and Non-coherent Detection
Coherent Detection (most PSK, some FSK):
Exact replicas of the possible arriving signals are available at
the receiver.
This means knowledge of the phase reference (phased-
locked).
Detection by cross-correlating the received signal with each
one of the replicas, and then making a decision based on
comparisons with pre-selected thresholds.

Non-coherent Detection (some FSK, DPSK):

Knowledge of the carrier’s wave phase not required.
Less complexity.
Inferior error performance.

56
Design Trade-offs
Primary resources:
Transmitted Power.
Channel Bandwidth.
Design goals:
Maximum data rate.
Minimum probability of symbol error.
Minimum transmitted power.
Minimum channel bandiwdth.
Maximum resistance to interfering signals.
Minimum circuit complexity.
57
Coherent Binary PSK (BPSK)
Two signals, one representing 0, the other 1.

s1 t   A cos2f c t 
s2 t   A cos2f c t      A cos2f c t 
  s1 t 
Each of the two signals represents a single bit of information.
Each signal persists for a single bit period (T) and then may be
replaced by either state.
Signal energy (ES) = Bit Energy (Eb), given by:
A2T 2 Eb
ES  Eb  Therefore  A
2 Tb
58
Orthonormal basis
representation
Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization: basis of signals
that are both ortogornal between them and
normalized to have unit energy.
T 1 if i  j
0 i (t ) j (t )dt  0 if i  j
Allows representation of M energy signals {si(t)} as
linear combinations of N orthonormal basis functions,
where N<=M.
Ex.: N=2 2
1 (t )  cos(2f c t ) 0tT
T
2
 2 (t )  sin(2f c t ) 0tT
T

59
BPSK representation
Let’s consider the unidimensional base
(N=1) where:
2
1 (t )  cos(2f c t ) 0tT
Tb
Let’s also rewrite the signal amplitudes
as a function of their energy:
2 Eb
s1 t   cos2f c t 
Tb
2 Eb
s2 t    cos2f c t 
Tb

60
BPSK representation
Therefore, we can write the signals s1(t) and s2(t)
in terms of 1(t): s1 (t )  Eb 1 (t ) 0  t  Tb
s2 (t )   Eb 1 (t ) 0  t  Tb
• Which can be graphically represented as:

61
BPSK Physical Implementation
+A

1 t t

0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
-A

cos(2fct)

62
Detection of BPSK
Actual BPSK signal is
received with noise
We assume AWGN in
this class
Other noise properties are possible
AWGN is a good approximation
Other noise models are more complex
Constellation becomes a distribution because
of noise variations to signal

63
Recall Gaussian Distribution
= mean Area to the right of this
=standard deviation line represents
Probability (x>x0)

 x0 x

 x0 -  b  1  x0 -  b 
Probabiliy (x  x 0 )  Q   erfc  
   2  2 
 2
2 Approximation for large e y
Where: erfc y   erfc y  
z2

 e
y
dz
positive values of y 
y 

Both Q(.) and erfc(.) functions are integrals widely

tabled and available as functions in Excel and calculators

64
Calculating Error Probability
AWGN on Signal
Noise Spectral Density = N0
Noise Variance:
N0
2 N0
  
-A +A
i 2 2
0
P(-A/+A) = P(+A/-A)

 Eb  1  Eb 

P(0 /1)  P(1/0)  P x  E b  Q 
   2
 erfc 
 2 
   
 
  BPSK error probability
1
 erfc Eb   1 erfc E b 
2  N0  2  N 
 2   0 

 2 
65
Bit Error Rate (BER) for BPSK
BER is therefore given by Approximation
valid for Eb/No
greater than ~4 dB
1  Eb  Eb/No
BER  erfc 

2  N o 
(dB) BER
0 0.08
Eb 2 0.04
0.2821 
No
BER  e 4 0.014
Eb 6 0.0027
8 2*10-4
No 10 4*10-6
10.543 10-6

Note that these calculations are for synchronous detection

66
Ambiguity Resolution
We haven’t discussed yet how to tell
which signal state is a 1 and which a 0
Because of variations in the signal path,
its impossible to tell a priori
Two common approaches resolutions:
Unique Word
Differential Encoding

67
Unique Word Ambiguity Resolution

A specific, known unique word is sent

The unique word is sent at a known time in
the data
The correct signal state is chosen as 1 to
correctly decode the unique word
Usually implemented with two detectors - the
output of the correct one is simply used
Could lead to problems until a new UW is RX if a
phase slip occurs
All bits after slip will be received wrong!
68
Differential Encoding Ambiguity Resolution

Data is not transmitted directly

Each bit is represented by:
0 => phase shift of  radians
1 => no phase shift
in the carrier
This results in ~ doubling the BER since
any error will tend to corrupt 2
 E  0.5642
 bits
Eb

BER  2 BER  erfc b 

 eNo

BER is then
DBPSK BPSK
 N
o  b E
N
Valid for BER<~0.01 o

69
Coherent Quaternary PSK (QPSK)
Four signals are used to convey information
s1 t   A cos2f c t 
Constant Modulus =>
s2 t   A cos2f c t   / 2
s3 t   A cos2f c t   
s4 t   A cos2f c t   / 2  q

+jA
This leads to a constellation of: -A +A
when shown as a phasor i

referenced to the signal phase,  -jA

Each of the two states represents
a two bits of information

70
QPSK Constellation Representation
In this case we use the following orthonormal
basis:  (t )  2 cos(2f t )
1 0tT
c
T
2
 2 (t )  sin(2f c t ) 0tT
T

Which gives, after application of some

trigonometric identities, the following
constellation representation:

71
QPSK Constellation

72
QPSK Waveform

73
QPSK Physical Implementation
1/2 rate data

cos(2fct)
full rate QPSK symbols
Demux 
data, Rb Rs = Rb/2
90o
Note that the QPSK
signal can be seen to
be two BPSK signals
in phase quadrature
1/2 rate data

74
Bit Error Rate (BER) for QPSK
The BER is still the probability of choosing the
wrong signal state (symbol now)
Because the signal is Gray coded (00 is next
to 01 and 10 for instance but not 11) the BER
for QPSK is that for BPSK:
BER (after a lot of derivation) is given by:

 
Eb Approximation
1 Eb  0.2821 N o

BERQPSK  erfc   e valid for Eb/No
2  No  Eb greater than ~4 dB
No Note that Eb is here, not Es!
75
Frequency Shift Keying
Two signals are used to convey information
s1 t   A cos2f1t  1 
Constant Modulus =>
s2 t   A cos2f 2t   2 
In principle, the transmitted signal appears as 2
sinx/x functions at carrier frequencies
Each of the two states represents
a single bit of information
Each state persists for a single bit period and then
may be replaced either state
BER is: 2x BPSK BER for coherent
for non-coherent
 Eb
1
BER  e 2 N o
2
76
Frequency Shift Keying

77
Other Modulations (cont.)
M-ary PSK
PSK with 2n states where n>2
Incr. spectral eff. - (More bits per Hertz)
Degraded BER compared to BPSK or QPSK
QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Not constant envelope
Allows higher spectral eff.
Degraded BER compared to BPSK or QPSK

78
M-ary PSK

79
M-ary QAM

80
Other Modulations
OQPSK
QPSK
One of the bit streams delayed by Tb/2
Same BER performance as QPSK
MSK
QPSK - also constant envelope, continuous phase
FSK
1/2-cycle sine symbol rather than rectangular
Same BER performance as QPSK
81
Shannon Bound
1948 Shannon demonstrated that, with
proper coding
 Sa

channel
E  BW N capacity
 R Eof

Capacity  BW log 2 1    Rb b  o
log 2 1  b b 
 N N o  Rb Eb  BW N o 
S R E
since  b b therefore
N BW N o
Eb
lim Capacity  1.443Rb
B  No
since Rb  lim Capacity
B 
Required channel quality
Eb Eb
Rb  1.443Rb or  1.6 dB for error free communications
No No =>we’re doing much worse
82
Modulation Schemes Error Performance

83
M-ary PSK Error Performance

84
Operation Point Comparison

85
Error Detection and Correction

86
Coding position on a transmission system

87
Error Protection Coding
Three types to discuss
Parity Bits (error detection only, really a subset of BC)
Block Coding (eg. Reed-Solomon) Forward Error
Convolutional Coding (eg. Viterbi or Turbo) Correction codes
All impose an overhead on channel
Additional information must be transmitted
This additional information is the redundant information of the
error coding
Block codes develop less coding gain but are (much)
easier to process (esp. at high data rates)
Often advantageous to use both together
Gain depends on BER - must be careful here
Coding ~ necessary for non-lin. ch.s (discuss BER flare)

88
Parity Bits
The data is parsed into uniform k-bit words
7 bits is a common data length
An extra bit is added to this to make an k+1
bit transmission word
The value of the k+1th bit is determined by:
bit k 1  bit1  bit 2    bit k
Even parity:
Odd parity: bit k 1  bit1  bit 2    bit k

Doesn’t correct errors just detects, and only

an odd number of errors (discuss why)

89
Block Codes - 1

The data is parsed into uniform k-bit blocks

Coder adds n-k unique redundant bits
An n-bit block is transmitted
Coder is memoryless - only this block used n
Transmitted data rate is then: Rc  Rb
k
Redundant bits used to correct errors

90
Block Codes - 2

Hamming, Golay, BCH, Reed-Solomon, maximal-

length are different types of block codes
n
Important for this class Rc  Rb
Depending on amount of redundancy added, block k codes
may be used to detect only or to actually correct bit errors.
Block codes correct burst errors (ie. adjacent errors) as well
as they do random errors.
Not as powerful as convolutional

91
Ciclic Codes (block codes)

Rc  Rb 1
r

92
Convolutional Codes - 1
Process as sliding window of data
Use constraint length of k (window length)
Rc  Rb 1
Transmit at rate of r where r is
rate
Fairly high coding gain
Turbo codes are even higher (but harder)
Eb/No BER r=1/3 r=1/2 r=2/3 r=3/4
uncoded k=7 k=8 k=5 k=6 k=7 k=6 k=8 k=6 k=9

Do not handle burst errors well

(dB)
6.8
9.6
10-3
10-5
4.2
5.7
4.4
5.9
3.3
4.3
3.5
4.6
3.8
5.1
2.9
4.2
3.1
4.6
2.6
3.6
2.6
4.2
11.3 10-7 6.2 6.5 4.9 5.3 5.8 4.7 5.2 3.9 4.8
infinite 0 7.0 7.3 5.4 6.0 7.0 5.2 6.7 4.8 5.7

Coding Gain (dB) for various Viterbi codes

93
Convolutional Codes - 2

94
Trellis Coding - 1

95
Trellis Coding - 2

96
Interleaving and Code on Code
Problem: Noise often happens in bursts
Can use interleaving - spreading adjacent bits
of convolutional code over time to avoid
having adjacent bits corrupted
But, we still have a quandary:
Block codes are robust against bursts
Convolutional codes provide more gain
Solution: use both inner convolutional and
outer block codes to get both effects

97
Summary of Useful Formulas

98
Summary of Digital Communications -1

Legend of variables mentioned in this section:

M = modulation size. (Ex: 2, 4, 16, 64)
Bw = Bandwidth in Hertz
 = Roll-off factor (from 0 to 1)
Gc = Coding Gain (convert from dB to linear to use in formulas)
Ov = Channel Overhead (convert from % to fraction : 0 to1)
BER = Bit Error Rate

99
Summary of Digital Communications - 2
•Bits per Symbol: Bs  Log 2 M
1
• Symbol Rate [symbol/second]: Rs  BW
1

•Gross Bit Rate [bps]: RG  Bs Rs  Log 2 M  1  BW

1  

•Net Data Rate [bps]:

 1 
Ri  RG (1  Ov)  Log 2 M   BW (1  Ov )
1  
100
Summary of Digital Communications - 3
•Required Eb/No (assuming no coding) [adimensional]:
(function of modulation scheme and required bit error rate – see table later)
 Eb 
   Table function 1 (Modulation Scheme,BER)
 N 0  Req from theory

•Required Eb/No (using coding gain) [adimensional]:

 Eb  1  Eb 
    
 N 0  Re q Gc  N 0  Req from theory
•Required C/N [adimensional]:
C  Eb  RG
  
 
 *
  Re q  0  Re q BW
N N
101
 Summary of Digital Communications - 4
•Required Signal Strength [Watts]:
 
 
Where k = Boltzman constant = 1.38e-23 J/Hz
TS = System Noise Temperature
T0 = ambient temperature (usually 290 K)
F = System Noise figure in linear scale (not in dB)

C
CRe q   N
 N  Re q
C C
   kTs BW    kT0 BW F
 N  Re q  N  Re q
102
 BER Calculation as a Function of Modulation
Scheme and Eb/No Available
• Equations given on next slide are used to calculate the bit error
rate (BER) given the bit energy by spectral noise ratio (Eb/No) as
input.
• These functions are used in their direct form for the bit error rate
calculations. Excel and some scientific calculators provide the
solution for the “erfc” function.
• The formulas provided can be inverted by numerical methods to
obtain the Eb/No required as a function of the BER.
• Also possible to draw the graphic and obtain the “inverse” by
graphical inspection.

103
 BER Calculation as a Function of Modulation
Scheme and Eb/No Available - 2

Modulation
Schem e Theoretical BER Calculation
Coh-PSK BER = 0.5*ERFC(SQRT((Eb/No)))
Coh-DPSK BER = ERFC(SQRT((Eb/No)))-0.5*(ERFC(SQRT((Eb/No))))^2
Coh-QPSK BER = ERFC(SQRT((Eb/No)))-0.25*(ERFC(SQRT((Eb/No))))^2
Ncoh-QPSK(Dif) BER = ERFC(SQRT(2*(Eb/No))*SIN(PI()/4))
Coh-8-PSK BER = ERFC(SQRT(3*(Eb/No))*SIN(PI()/8))
Ncoh-8PSK(Dif) BER = ERFC(SQRT(2*3*(Eb/No))*SIN(PI()/(2*8)))
BER = ((1-1/K)/(LOG(K)/LOG(2)))*ERFC(SQRT(3*(LOG(K)/LOG(2))/(K^2-1)*(Eb/No)))
16-QAM Where K = 4
BER = ((1-1/K)/(LOG(K)/LOG(2)))*ERFC(SQRT(3*(LOG(K)/LOG(2))/(K^2-1)*(Eb/No)))
32-QAM Where K = 6
BER = ((1-1/K)/(LOG(K)/LOG(2)))*ERFC(SQRT(3*(LOG(K)/LOG(2))/(K^2-1)*(Eb/No)))
64-QAM Where K = 8
BER = ((1-1/K)/(LOG(K)/LOG(2)))*ERFC(SQRT(3*(LOG(K)/LOG(2))/(K^2-1)*(Eb/No)))
256-QAM Where K = 16
Coh-4FSK BER = 0.5*ERFC(SQRT((Eb/No)/2))

104