Measurement and

Instrumentation
Lect 1
BSME 19-23 5th semester
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences Nilore Islamabad
Lecture outline
• Introduction
• Process of Measurement
• Significance of Measurement
• Methods of Measurement
• Generalized Measuring System
• Types of Input Quantities
• Calibration
• Uncertainty
Introduction

• Whatever exists, exists in some amount

• The determination of the amount of some quantity is measurement

• Mechanical Measurements
• If quantities to be measured relates to mechanical engineering

e.g displacement, force, torque, pressure, temperature and flow etc.

Process of Measurement
• The word measurand is used to designate the particular physical
parameter being observed and quantified
• It is input quantity to the measuring process
• The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a
quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and a
measurand
• The act of measurement produces a result
• Standard is usually defined by a legal or recognized agency or
organization e.g NIST, NBS, ISO and ANSI etc.
Process of Measurement

• It is often convenient or necessary to change or transduce a mechanical

measurand into a corresponding electrical quantity
Significance of Measurement

• quantitative information on the actual state of physical variables

• new understanding of the physical world

• ultimate test of any theory or design

• fundamental basis for all research, design and development

• fundamental element of any control process

• monitoring of processes for optimized performance

Methods of Measurement
Direct comparison
• Comparison is made with either with primary or secondary standard
• Length of a bar is measured by comparing its length with steel tape
with a precision of about 1 mm
• Steel tape is secondary standard while primary standard is related to
speed of light
• It is less common than measurement by indirect comparison
Methods of Measurement
Indirect comparison
• It makes use of some form of transducing device coupled to a chain of
connecting apparatus called measuring system
• Measurement system converts the basic form of input into an
analogous form, which it then processes and presents at the output
as a known function of the original input
• Assistance is required from a system that senses, converts and finally
presents an analogous output in the form of a displacement on a
scale or chart or as a digital readout
Generalized Measuring System

• Most measuring systems fall within the framework of a general

arrangement consisting of three phases or stages

• Stage 1: A detection-transduction or sensor-transducer stage

• Stage 2: An intermediate stage or signal-conditioning stage

• Stage 3: A terminating or readout-recording stage

Generalized Measuring System
Sensor Transducer Stage
• The primary function of the first stage is to detect or to sense the
measurand
• Ideally this stage should be insensitive to every other possible input
• Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error, called noise when it varies
rapidly and drift when it varies very slowly
• Frequently there is more than a single transduction in the first stage
particularly if the first-stage output is electrical
Generalized Measuring System
Signal conditioning stage
• The purpose of the second stage of the general system is to modify
the transduced information so that it is acceptable to the third stage
• It may perform one or more basic operations, such as selective
filtering to remove noise, integration, differentiation and telemetering
• Most common function of the second stage is to increase either
amplitude or power of the signal or both to the level required to drive
the final terminating device
Generalized Measuring System
Readout recording stage
• provides the information sought in a form comprehensible to one of
the human senses or to a controller
• If the output is intended for immediate human recognition then it
may take one of the following forms
• As a relative displacement, such as movement of an indicating hand or
displacement of oscilloscope trace
• In digital form, as presented by a counter such as an automobile odometer, or
by liquid crystal display (LCD) or light-emitting diode (LED) display as on a
digital voltmeter
Generalized Measuring System
Measuring System Example
Measuring System Example
Types of Input Quantities
Time Dependence
• Static-constant in time
• Dynamic-varying in time
(a) Steady-state periodic
(b) Nonrepetitive or transient
i. Single pulse or aperiodic
ii. Continuing or random
Types of Input Quantities
Analog and digital signals
• Most measurands of interest vary with time in a continuous manner
over a range of magnitudes e.g speed of automobile
• An analog signal has a value at every instant in time, and it usually
varies smoothly in magnitude
• Digital quantities change in a stepwise manner between two distinct
magnitudes e.g shaft revolution counter with cam actuated switch
• A digital signal is a set of discrete numbers, each corresponding to the
value of the analog signal at a single specific instant of time
Calibration
• Known magnitudes of the input quantity must be fed into the sensor-
transducer and the system's output behavior must be observed
• Such a comparison allows the magnitude of the output to be correctly
interpreted in terms of the magnitude of the input
• This calibration procedure establishes the correct output scale for the
measuring system
• If a measuring system will be used to detect a time-varying input,
then the calibration should ideally be made using a time-dependent
input standard
Calibration
• If the output is exactly proportional to the input (output = constant x
input), then a single simultaneous observation of input and output
will suffice to fix the constant of proportionality called single point
calibration
• More often, however, multipoint calibrations are used, wherein a
number of different input values are applied
• Multipoint calibration works when the output is not simply
proportional and more generally improves the accuracy of the
calibration
Uncertainty
• Error may be defined as the difference between the measured result
and the true value of the quantity being measured
• If we estimate a likely upper bound on the magnitude of the error
that bound is called the uncertainty
• We estimate with some level of odds, that the error will be no larger
than the uncertainty
• To estimate the size of errors, we must have some understanding of
their causes and classifications
• Error Types: bias or systematic error and precision or random error