Instrumentations and Measurement

Dr. Jabir Mumtaz

Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Recommended Books
Text Books:
1. Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements by Richard S. Figliola and Donald
E. Beasely, 5th edition

Reference Books:
1-Masurement Systems Applications and Design 1st Edition, by E. Doeblin, McGraw
Hill.
2-Measurement and Instrumentation Principles by Alan S. Morris, Third Edition.
Course Outlines
➢ Significance of measurement, ➢ Measurement errors,
➢ Planning of experiments, ➢ instruments for measurement of length,
➢ General measurement system, ➢ Instruments for force, torque, strain,
frequency,
➢ Calibration,
➢ Pressure and flow Measuring
➢ Static and dynamic measurement Instruments
sensitivity,
➢ Temperature measuring devices.
➢ Range,
➢ Introduction to data acquisition systems,
➢ Accuracy precision
➢ A/D and D/A converters.
➢ Repeatability and uncertainty of
instruments.
Suitability of a work piece
▪The suitability of a work piece for its purpose depends upon chemical,
mechanical and geometrical properties.
▪Our Interest
▪Geometrical
▪Deviation from its ideal features
Metrology
• Science of measurements
• Which device is used for measure of work piece measurements
• How it measures
Metrology
The study of measurements
Measurements are quantitative observations; numerical descriptions
Measurements are part of the daily routine in a mechanical workshop
Measurements are expected to be “good”
Vocabulary of Metrology
• Unit of measurement •Verification
• Accuracy •Tolerance
• Precision •Errors
• Standards •Uncertainty
• Calibration
Precision Engineering
“Precision engineering is a discipline encompassing the design, development and
measurement of and for high accuracy measurements. By extension, the field also
includes design of systems in which high accuracy is a central concern as well as the
design of machine tools and measuring machines to accomplish the necessary
manufacture and measurement”

American Society of Precision Engineering (ASPE)

General Measurement System
Measurement: An act of assigning a specific value to physical variable.
System: A group of components that work together to achieve a specific goal.
So, a Measurement system is a tool used for quantifying the measured physical
variable.
Sensor
▪ A sensor is a device used to measure a property, such as pressure, position,
temperature, or acceleration, and respond with feedback. A sensor is always used
with other electronics.
▪ Suppose we want to measure the profile of a surface at a nanometer scale. We
discover that a small (very small) cantilever beam placed near the surface is
deflected by atomic forces.
▪ Let’s assume for now that they are repulsive forces. If this cantilever is translated
over the surface , the cantilever will deflect, indicating the height of the surface .
▪ The device is called an atomic force microscope . The cantilever beam is a sensor, a
physical element that employs some natural phenomenon, in this case deflection
under the action of a force, to sense the variable being measured, in this case the
height of the surface.
 Transducer
▪ A transducer converts the sensed information into a
detectable signal. The signal might be mechanical,
electrical, optical, or may take any other form that can
be meaningfully recorded.
▪ A transducer is a device that converts energy from one
form to another.
▪ Suppose that the upper surface of the cantilever is
reflective, and we shine a laser onto the upper surface
▪ The movement of the cantilever will deflect the laser.
Employing a number of light sensors, the deflection of
the laser can be sensed and that deflection corresponds
to the height of the surface
▪ Together the laser and the light sensors (photodiodes)
form the transducer component of the measurement
system.
Mercury in glass thermometer.
A measuring system

Input Signal: Thermal energy input

Sensor: liquid in glass
Transducer: Capillary tube
Signal Conditioning: done with help
of diameter of capillary tube.
Components of Measuring System
1. Sensor-Transducer
Stage
2. Signal Conditioning
stage
3. Output stage
4. Feedback control
system
Signal-conditioning stage
▪ The signal conditioning stage takes the transducer signal and modifies it to a desired
magnitude.
▪ This optional intermediate stage might be used to perform tasks such as increasing
the magnitude of the signal by amplification, removing portions of the signal
through some filtering technique, or providing mechanical or optical linkage
between the transducer and the output stage.
▪ For example, the diameter of the thermometer capillary relative to the bulb volume
determines how far up the stem the liquid moves with increasing temperature. It
‘‘conditions’’ the signal by amplifying the liquid displacement.
Feedback-control
▪ A fourth stage, the feedback-control stage, contains a controller that interprets the
measured signal and makes a decision regarding the control of the process.
▪ This decision results in a signal that changes the process parameter that affects the
magnitude of the sensed variable.
▪ In simple controllers, this decision is based on the magnitude of the signal of the
sensed variable, usually whether it exceeds some high or low set point, a value set
by the system operator.
▪ For example, a simple measurement system with control stage is a household
furnace thermostat. The operator fixes the set point for temperature on the
thermostat display, and the furnace is activated as the local temperature at the
thermostat as determined by the sensor within the device, rises or falls above or
below the set point.
Output stage
▪ The output stage indicates or records the value measured. This might be a simple
readout display, a marked scale, or even a recording device such as a computer disk
drive.
▪ The readout scale of the bulb thermometer serves as the output stage of that
measurement system.
Measurement System Types
Open Loop System or No Feedback system

Actuating
Input signal Device Process Output

Gas/Electric Current Heater Room Temperature

Measurement System Types
Closed Loop System or Feedback System

Desired
Output Comparison Controller Process
Response Output

Feedback

Measurement
Experimental Test Plan
A plan that is designed and executed to answer a specific question of interest in an
experimental test is called experimental test plan.
Example Question: How much fuel my car consumes?
Steps of an Experimental Test Plan
1. Parameter design plan. Determine the test objective and identify the process
variables and parameters and a means for their control. Ask: "What question am I
trying to answer? What needs to be measured?" "What variables and parameters will
affect my results?"
2-System and tolerance design plan. Select a measurement technique, equipment, and
test procedure based on some defined tolerance limits for error. Ask: "In what ways
can I do the measurement and how good do the results need to be to answer my
question?"
3-Data reduction design plan. Plan how to analyze, present, and use the anticipated
data. Ask: "How will I interpret the resulting data? How will I use the data to answer
my question? How good is my answer? Does my answer make sense?"
Variables
▪ Variables are entities that influence the test.
▪ All known process variables should be evaluated for any possible cause and effect
relationships. If a change in one variable will not affect the value of some other
variable, the two are considered independent of each other
▪ A variable that can be changed independently of other variables is known as an
independent variable.
▪ A variable that is affected by changes in one or more other variables is known as a
dependent variable.
▪ Variables that are not or cannot be controlled during measurement but that affect
the value of the variable measured are called extraneous variables.
Parameter
▪ Parameter is a functional grouping of variables. It is an entity that is used to connect
or unify two or more variables of an equation. The parameters may or may not have
the same dimensions as the variables.
▪ For example, a moment of inertia or a Reynolds number has its value determined
from the values of a grouping of variables.
▪ As an example, the flow rate, Q developed by a fan depends on rotational speed, n,
and the diameter, d, of the fan (Q=nd^3)
▪ For a given fan, d is fixed (and therefore controlled), and if speed is somehow
controlled, the fan flow rate associated with that speed can be measured and the
flow coefficient can be determined.
 Noise & Interference
▪ Noise is a random variation of the value of the measured signal because of the variation
of the extraneous variables.
▪ Noise increases data scatter.
▪ Interference imposes undesirable deterministic trends on the measured value. Any
uncontrolled influence that causes the signal or test outcome to behave in a manner
different from its true behavior is interference.
▪ Hum and acoustic feedback in public address and audio systems are ready examples of
interference effects that are superimposed onto a desirable signal
 Noise & Interference
❑ Effects of noise and interference
superimposed on the signal
Calibration
A calibration applies a known input value to a measurement system for the purpose of
observing the system output value. It establishes the relationship between the input
and output values. The known value used for the calibration is called the standard.
Static Calibration :
In this procedure, a known value is input to the system under calibration and the system
output is recorded. The term "static" implies that the values of the variables involved
remain constant; that is, they do not vary with time or space. In static calibrations, only
the magnitudes of the known input and the measured output are important.
Dynamic Calibration:
When the variables of interest are time (or space) dependent and such varying
information is required, we need dynamic information. In a broad sense, dynamic
variables are time (or space) dependent in both their magnitude and frequency content.
A dynamic calibration determines the relationship between an input of known dynamic
behavior and the measurement system output.
Static Sensitivity
The slope of a static calibration curve provides the static sensitivity of the measurement
system. As depicted graphically in the calibration curve the static sensitivity, K, at any
particular static input value, say x1, is evaluated by:

where K is a function of x. The static sensitivity

is a measure relating the change in the indicated
output associated with a given change in a static
input.
Steps of calibrations
In performing a calibration, the following steps are necessary:

1. Examine the construction of the instrument, identify and list all the possible inputs.
2. Decide, as best you can, which of the inputs will be significant in the application for
which the instrument is to be calibrated.
3. Procure apparatus that will allow you to vary all significant inputs over the ranges
considered necessary.
4. By holding some inputs constant, varying others, and recording the output(s),
develop the desired static input-output relations.
 INSTRUMENTS TYPES AND
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
 Active and Passive Instruments
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to whether the instrument output is entirely
produced by the quantity being measured or whether the quantity being measured simply controls the
magnitude of some external power source.

 Passive instruments
The instrument type in which output entirely depends on quantity to be measured.
An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring device.
 Active instruments
The instrument type in which quantity to be measured modulates or adapts to magnitude of external
power source is known as active instrument.
An example of an active instrument is a float- type petrol tank level indicator.
The primary transducer float system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from this external power
source.
Analog and Digital Instruments
 An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity
being measured changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within
the range that the instrument is designed to measure. The deflection-type of
pressure gauge is a good example of an analogue instrument.

 A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have
a finite number of values.
Digital Instruments
 A cam is attached to the revolving body whose motion is being measured, and on each
revolution the cam opens and closes a switch. The switching operations are counted by an
electronic counter. This system can only count whole revolutions and cannot discriminate any
motion that is less than a full revolution.
Analogue and Digital Instruments
 Any digital computer system performs its computations in digital form. An
instrument whose output is in digital form is therefore particularly
advantageous in such applications, as it can be interfaced directly to the
control computer.
 Analogue instruments must be interfaced to the microcomputer by an
analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter, which converts the analogue output
signal from the instrument into an equivalent digital quantity that can be
read into the computer.
 A/D converter adds a significant cost to the system.
 A finite time is involved in the process of converting an analogue signal to a
digital quantity, and this time can be critical in the control of fast processes
Assignment

➢ Compare the differences between active and

passive instruments and find real world examples.

➢ Which one is more efficient, digital or analog?

Give real life examples
Smart and Non-Smart devices
With advent of microprocessor, devices have built in microprocessor and are termed
as smart devices. Those which do not have microprocessors in the device are called as
non smart devices.
Static Characteristics of Instruments
 Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)
 Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
 Tolerance
 Range or span
 Linearity
 Sensitivity of measurement
 Threshold
 Resolution
 Sensitivity to disturbance
 Hysteresis effects
 Dead space
Accuracy and inaccuracy
▪ The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of
how close the output reading of the instrument is
to the correct value.

▪ Inaccuracy is the extent up to which the reading

might be wrong.
Precision
▪ Precision is how consistent results are when measurements are repeated.
▪ Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from
random errors.
▪ If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high
precision instrument, then the spread of readings will be very small.
Repeatability/Reproducibility
 Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied
repetitively over a short period of time, with the
 same measurement conditions
 same instrument and observer
 same location
 same conditions of use maintained throughout.
 Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions
of use or time of measurement.
 Both terms describe the spread of output readings for the same input.
Tolerance
 Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error
that is to be expected in some value.
 Tolerance refers to the total allowable error within an item. This is typically
represented as a +/- value off of a nominal specification.
 Products can become deformed due to changes in temperature and humidity, which
lead to material expansion and contraction, or due to improper feedback from a
process control device. In this way, tolerance is meant to be used when setting the
acceptable error range (the range within which quality can still be maintained) based
on the design value with the assumption that variation will occur at any given step.
 When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured
component from some specified value
 Value 1000Ω and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere between 950 Ω
and 1050 Ω.
Range or Span
 The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a
quantity that the instrument is designed to measure.
 e.g If the maximum limit in the speedometer of a car is 280 km/hr, then the range of
the speedometer is

Range= Maximum value –Minimum value

= 280-0
=280km/hr
Sensitivity to Disturbance
 Sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of the change in
measurements values.
 All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled
conditions of temperature, pressure etc.
 As variations occur in the ambient temperature etc., certain static instrument
characteristics change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the
magnitude of this change.
 Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as
I. Zero drift.
II. Sensitivity drift.
 Sensitivity to Disturbance
Zero Drift:

 Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term,

bias zero drift or bias.
 Zero drift describes the effect where the zero reading of
an instrument is modified by a change in ambient
conditions.
 Zero drift is normally removable by calibration.
 This causes a constant error that exists over the full
range of measurement of the instrument.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Sensitivity drift:

 Sensitivity drift also known as scale factor drift.

 Defines the amount by which an
instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies
as ambient conditions change.
SENSITIVITY TO DISTURBANCE
Example
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C and has the
following deflection/load characteristic.

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30°C and the following

deflection/load characteristic is measured

Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in ambient temperature.
Solution
Threshold
 If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input
will have to reach a certain minimum level before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be
detectable.
 This minimum level of input is known as the threshold of the instrument.
 As a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 km/h. This
means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output
reading is observed on the speedometer until the speed reaches 15
km/h.
 Resolution
 The resolution represents the smallest increment in the
measured value that can be distinguished. In terms of a
measurement system, it is quantified by the smallest scale
increment or least count (least significant digit) of the output
readout indicator.
 One of the major factor influencing the resolution of an
instrument is how finely its output scale is divided into
subdivisions.
Systematic Error
Systematic errors describe errors in the output readings of a measurement system that
are consistently on one side of the correct reading, i.e. either all the errors are positive
or they are all negative.
Two major sources of systematic errors are
System disturbance during measurement and
The effect of environmental changes
Instruments wear and tear.
Sources of systematic error include bent meter needles, the use of un-calibrated
instruments, drift in instrument characteristics etc.
Constant error over the range of measurements, therefore difficult to estimate value
of systematic error.
An estimate of the range of systematic error is represented by an interval, defined ±b.
Random Errors
When repeated measurements are made under
fixed operating conditions, random errors
manifest themselves as scatter of the measured
data.
E.g: you measure your height and it comes out to
be 172 cm, 170 cm and 173 cm
Random error is introduced through the
repeatability , resolution of the measurement
system components, calibration, and
measurement procedure and technique.
Random and Systematic Errors and Uncertainty
 Errors are effects that cause a measured value to differ from its true value.
 Random error causes a random variation in measured values found during repeated
measurements of a variable.
 Systematic error causes an offset between the mean value of the data set and its
true value.
 Both random and systematic errors affect a system’s accuracy.