Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Unit 1:
• Fundamentals of Measurement Systems,
• Instrument Types
• Performance Characteristics,
• sources of error,
• classification and elimination of error,
• uncertainty analysis,
• statistical analysis of experimental data.
Measurand
Classification of Measuring Instruments
• Absolute and Secondary
• Analog and Digital
• Automatic and Manual
• Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics
• Self operated or Power operated (Passive and Active Instruments)
• Null or Deflection type
 Absolute and Secondary
• Absolute instruments gives the value of the measurand with respect
to the constants of the instrument.
Example : Proving Ring for force measurement.
• Secondary Instruments will give instantaneous values of the
quantity to be measured.
example : voltmeter, a glass thermometer, and a pressure gauge
Active and Passive Measuring instruments
 Static Characteristics
• Span • Stability
• Range • Resolution
• Accuracy • Sensitivity
• Linearity
• Precision • Drift
• Static Error • Threshold
• Dead Zone / Band
• Calibration
• Hysteresis
• Uncertainty
• Repeatability
• Reproducibility
Range and Span
• Range : is defined as the measure of the instrument between
minimum value and the maximum value the instrument can measure.
• Span : is defined as the difference between the maximum and the
minimum value that the instrument can measure.
 Accuracy
• It is defined as the closeness of the measured value to the true value of the
measurand.
• It indicates the maximum likely deviation of the measured value and the true value
of the quantity being measured.
• Accuracy of an instrument is specified as the uncertainty in the measured value.
• Accuracy as percentage span of the instrument. (Full scale deflection)
• Accuracy as percentage of True value. (measured Value)
• Point accuracy.

Volt meter with range of 0-20 V . One of the measured value is specified as 10±0.2V.
Express the measurement with accuracy as % of true value and % of span.
 Precision
• Precision is defined as the degree of refinement with which a
measured value is stated.
Static Error
The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the true value of a
quantity and its value as obtained by measurement, i.e. repeated measurement of the same
quantity gives different indications. Types of Static Errors are categorized as gross errors or human
errors, systematic errors, and random errors

Calibration
Calibration of the measuring instrument is the process in which the readings obtained from the instrument are compared
with the sub-standards in the laboratory at several points along the scale of the instrument. As per the results obtained
from the readings obtained of the instrument and the sub-standards, the curve is plotted. If the instrument is accurate
there will be matching of the scales of the instrument and the sub-standard. If there is deviation of the measured value
from the instrument against the standard value, the instrument is calibrated to give the correct values
Repeatability
• Repeatability is defined as the variation in observations/
measurements obtained with one measuring equipment/gage
when used several times by one inspector/assessor while
measuring the same characteristics on the same/identical part.

Reproducibility
• Reproducibility is defined as the variation in the average of
observations/measurements made by different inspectors/assessors using the
same measuring equipment/gage when measuring the same characteristic on the
same/identical part.
Stability
• Stability deals with the degree to which sensor characteristics
remain constant over time. Changes in stability, also known as
drift, can be due to components aging, decrease in sensitivity of
components, and/or a change in the signal to noise ratio, etc.
 Resolution
• Resolution is the ability of the measurement system to detect
and faithfully indicate small changes in the characteristic of the
measurement result
Sensitivity
Linearity
Drift
Dead Zone , Hysteresis error and Threshold
 Dynamics Characteristics
• Speed of Response.
• Measuring Lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic Error
• Speed of Response
Fidelity
Error = Measured Value ( ) –True Value ()
Correction =(-)
• No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy
• It is important to find out the accuracy rate and errors occurred
• A study of errors is a first step in finding ways to reduce them.

Errors are Classified into:

1.Gross errors
2.Systematic (or) instrumental errors
3.Random(or)Accidental errors
 Gross Errors

• Human mistakes in reading & recording instruments and calculating measurement result.

Ex: The temperature is 31.50C,but it is mistakenly written as 21.50c

• This can be avoided by adopting two means

• Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.

• Two, three (or) even more readings should be taken for quantity under measurement
 Systematic Errors
• These type of errors are divided into three categories.
• Instrumental errors
• Due to inherent short comings of the instrument
• Due to misuse of instruments
• Due to loading effects of instruments
• Environmental errors
• These errors are caused due to changes in the environmental conditions
in the area surrounding the instrument
• Observational errors
• These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers, which is
known as Parallax error
 Instrumental errors
• The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned.
Substitution methods or calibration against standards may be used
for the purpose.
• Correction factors should be applied after determining the
instrumental errors.
• The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
Experimental Errors
 Observational errors
• Modern electrical instruments have digital display of output which
completely eliminates the errors on account of human observational
or sensing powers as the output is in the form of digits.
 Random Errors

• The causes of such errors is unknown (or) not determinable in the ordinary process making
measurements.
• Certain human errors
• Errors caused due to the disturbances to the equipment’s
• Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions.
 Statistical Treatment of Data
• Multi sample Test : In this test, repeated measurement of a given
quantity are done using different test conditions (different
instruments, different ways different observers).

• Single sample Test : A single measurement done under identical

conditions excepting for time is known as single sample test.
Histogram
 Arithmetic Mean

Measure of dispersion about the mean

Dispersion : the property=y which denotes the extent to which the values are dispersed about the mean central
value
• Range : Measure of dispersion
• Deviation : Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the
mean of the group of readings.
• Average Deviation: The average deviation is an indication of the
precision of the instruments used. Highly precise instruments yield a
low average deviation.

• Standard Deviation : root mean square deviation.

• Variance : The variance is the mean square deviation
Problem
Pressure Gauge
Diaphragm type pressure gauge
Diaphragm type Differential Pressure gauge
 MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL

• Liquid level refers to the position or height of a liquid surface above a

datum line.
• Level measurements are made to a certain quantity of the liquid held
within a container.
• Level offers both the pressure and rate of flow in and out of the
container and as such its measurement and control is an important
function in a variety of processes.
• The task of liquid level measurement may be accomplished by direct
methods and indirect methods.
• Direct method
• Indirect Method
 Direct Methods

• This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level. In this method, the level of liquid is measured
directly by means of the following level indicators:
• Hook-type Level Indicator
• Sight Glass
• Float-type
• Float and shaft liquid level gauge
TURBINE FLOW METER
 Amplifiers
Mechanical Amplifiers
Hydraulic Amplifiers
Pneumatic Amplifier
Optical Amplifying Element