Introduction to Mechatronic Engineering

MCT 3301
Measurement Principles
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
ADUSTECH Wudil

Lt Col AS IMAM
Prof of Mechatronics
January, 2024 1
 Course Outline

• Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics.

• Types of Measurement Systems.
• Types of Errors in Measurement.
• Signal Conditioning.
Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• In the field of mechatronics, understanding the principles of
measurement is crucial for designing and controlling complex
systems.

• Measurement parameters such as accuracy, precision, range,

resolution, and sensitivity are fundamental in ensuring the
reliability and performance of mechatronic devices.

• This module delves into the concept of measurement in

Mechatronics systems, providing a clear understanding.

• Accuracy: Ensures measurement reliability. It refers to the

closeness of a measurement to its true value.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• In mechatronic systems, where
decisions and controls are often
based on sensor data, accuracy is
paramount.

• For instance, in a robotic arm used

in manufacturing, the accuracy of
position sensors ensures the
arm's correct positioning, directly
affecting the quality of the final
product.

• A graph illustrating accuracy

would show a series of
measurements clustered around
the true value, indicating high
accuracy.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• Thus, accuracy is the degree to
which a measurement aligns
with the true value.

• Mathematically, accuracy can

be quantified as the difference
between the measured value
and the true value.

• If M represents the measured

value and T the true value,
accuracy (A) can be expressed
as:

𝐴 =𝑀−𝑇
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• In mechatronic systems, where
precision can be life-critical,
maintaining high accuracy is
imperative.

• Precision (Consistency of
Measurement): Precision refers to
the consistency of repeated
measurements under the same
conditions.

• High precision means that

measurements are reproducible.
In mechatronic systems, precision
ensures stability and repeatability
in tasks.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• A graph representing precision
would display measurements
that are closely grouped,
regardless of their proximity to
the true value.

• Precision refers to the

repeatability of measurements
under unchanged conditions. It
is often quantified using
statistical methods such as
standard deviation.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• If a series of measurements are
taken, represented as M1,
M2,…Mn, the precision (P) can
be calculated as the standard
deviation of these
measurements:

!
𝑃= ∑"$%!(𝑀$ * &
− 𝑀)
"#!

Where 𝑀* is the mean of the

measurements.

Lower values of P indicate higher

precision.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• Range (Measurement Spectrum): Range is defined as the span
between the maximum and minimum limits that a measurement
system can accurately measure.

• It is crucial to select the right tool or sensor for a specific

application.

• For example, a thermometer might have a range from -10°C to

110°C.

• This means that the thermometer can provide measurements

anywhere within this span.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• Resolution: Resolution in the context of measurement and instrumentation
refers to the smallest change in a quantity being measured that an
instrument can detect and display.

• This concept is crucial in determining the level of detail or fineness of the

measurements that the instrument can provide.

• Resolution is not directly related to accuracy or precision, but it can impact

the usefulness of a device in certain applications.

• Here are some key points about resolution:

• Fineness' of the measurement. Digital vs. Analog Instruments: In digital
instruments, resolution is often determined by the smallest bit increment,
which is linked to the number of bits used in the digital representation.

• For analogue instruments, the resolution is tied to the smallest scale division
that can be accurately read.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

• For example, if we have a set of measurements like (10, 20, 15,

25, 5), the range would be:

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 25
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 5
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 25 − 5 = 20
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• Units of Measurement: Resolution is expressed in the same units as
the measured quantity.

• For example, a voltmeter might have a resolution of 1 mV, meaning it

can distinguish changes in voltage as small as 1 millivolt.

• Application: High-resolution instruments can detect very small

changes in the measured variable, making them suitable for precise
and sensitive measurements. However, higher resolution does not
necessarily mean better accuracy or precision.

• Example: Consider a digital thermometer. If it has a resolution of

0.1°C, it can display temperature changes as small as 0.1 degrees. If
the temperature changes from 23.2°C to 23.3°C, the thermometer will
register this change. However, it will not register a change from
23.20°C to 23.25°C.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• Limitation: High resolution can be limited by noise and other
factors in the measurement system.

• In some cases, excessively high resolution can lead to

misinterpretation of data if the instrument's accuracy or the
system's noise level does not support such fine measurements.

• Understanding resolution is crucial when selecting instruments

for specific measurement tasks, especially in fields requiring high
levels of detail, such as precision engineering, scientific
research, and quality control.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• Sensitivity (Responsiveness to Input Changes): Sensitivity is a key
concept that relates to the ability of an instrument or a measurement
system to detect small changes or differences in the quantity being
measured.

• It is an important characteristic that defines how responsive an

instrument is to changes in the measured variable.

• Mathematical Expression: Mathematically, sensitivity is the ratio of

the change in the output (or response) of the instrument to a change in
the input or measured quantity. It essentially measures how much the
output of the instrument changes per unit change in the input.

𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∆𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡/∆𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

• Where ΔOutput is the change in the instrument's output and ΔInput is

the change in the quantity being measured.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• The units of sensitivity depend on the instrument and the quantities
involved.

• For example, a thermometer might have a sensitivity expressed in

degrees Celsius per volt (°C/Volt) if its output is a voltage that changes
with temperature.

• High vs. Low Sensitivity: An instrument with high sensitivity will show
a large change in output for a small change in input. Conversely, a low-
sensitivity instrument requires a larger change in the input to produce
a noticeable change in the output.

• Application: Sensitivity is particularly important in applications where

detecting small changes is crucial, such as in precision instruments
used in scientific research, medical diagnostics, and environmental
monitoring.
 Principles of Measurement in Mechatronics
• Limitation: High sensitivity can be a double-edged sword; while it
allows for the detection of small changes, it can also make an
instrument more susceptible to noise and external disturbances.
This can potentially lead to inaccuracies if not properly managed.

• Calibration and Adjustment: Sensitivity is often a factor

considered during calibration and can sometimes be adjusted
based on the requirements of a specific measurement task.

• Understanding the sensitivity of an instrument is essential for

interpreting its readings accurately, especially in scenarios
where precision and responsiveness to small changes are
critical.
Types of Measurement Systems
 Types of Measurement Systems
• The 3 types of measurement systems are mechanical, electrical and
digital measurement systems.

• Mechanical Measurement Systems: Mechanical measurement tools

are the backbone of precision engineering and have been in use long
before the advent of digital technology. The various types of
mechanical measurements include:

• Mechanical Gauges: These are devices used to determine the

thickness, size, or capacity of a piece of an item, often in a
manufacturing or mechanical process. Examples include pressure
gauges, which measure the pressure of gases or liquids, and depth
gauges, used to measure the depth of slots, grooves, or recesses.

• Callipers: Callipers are versatile tools used to measure the distance

between two opposite sides of an object. They come in various forms,
including vernier, dial, and digital callipers.
 Types of Measurement Systems
• Vernier callipers, for instance, have a graduated scale and a sliding
vernier scale, allowing for very precise measurements.

• Micrometres: These are precision measuring instruments that can

read small distances or thicknesses. The micrometre screw gauge, for
example, has a calibrated screw used widely for precise measurement
of components in mechanical engineering and machining.

• Applications of Mechanical Measurement Tools: Mechanical

measurement tools find extensive applications in various fields. For
instance, in manufacturing, they are vital for quality control, ensuring
that parts meet specified dimensions. In mechanical engineering, they
are used for checking the fit and tolerance of machine parts.

• In fields like aerospace or automotive engineering, where precision is

paramount, these tools are indispensable for ensuring that
components adhere to strict safety and quality standards.
 Types of Measurement Systems
• Advantages of Mechanical Measurement Tools: One significant
advantage of these tools is their simplicity and ease of use. They do
not require electrical power, making them more versatile and reliable
in various settings, especially where power supply is a concern.

• Equally, their durability and longevity are also notable; they can last for
decades if properly maintained. Furthermore, for applications
requiring high precision, tools like micrometres offer exceptional
accuracy.

• Limitations of Mechanical Measurement Tools: Despite their

advantages, mechanical measurement tools have limitations.

• Their accuracy can be affected by the user's skill and experience.

• Reading vernier scales, for instance, requires some practice and a good eye.
• Environmental factors like temperature can also affect measurements, as metals
expand or contract with temperature changes.
• Speed and efficiency; digital tools often provide faster readings and can easily
store and transfer data, which is not the case with most mechanical tools.
 Types of Measurement Systems
• Electrical Measurement Systems: Electrical measurement systems revolve
around 3 fundamental parameters voltage , current, and resistance .

• Voltage (V): Voltage, or electric potential difference, is the driving force

behind electric current. It's analogous to the pressure exerted in a water
pipe and is measured in volts (V). The voltage V across a component can be
calculated using Ohm's law, given by:

𝑉 = 𝐼×𝑅
where I is the current in amperes (A) and R is the resistance in ohms (Ω).

• Current (I): Current is the rate of flow of electric charge and is measured in
amperes (A). It can be thought of as the flow rate of electrical charge
through a conductor. Using Ohm's law, current is given by:

𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅
where V is the voltage and R is the resistance.
 Types of Measurement Systems
• Resistance (R): Resistance determines how much
a material opposes the flow of electric current,
measured in ohms (Ω). The resistance of a material
can be calculated as:

𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅

where V is the voltage across the material and I is the current flowing through
it.

Electrical Measurement Instruments:

• Mulitimeters: Mustimeters measure voltage, current, and

resistance. The choice between analogue and digital
forms depends on the required precision and ease of
reading. Digital Multi-Meters (DMMs) provide numerical
displays, offering enhanced accuracy and convenience.
 Types of Measurement Systems
• Oscilloscopes: Oscilloscopes visually display the waveform of
electrical signals, typically plotting voltage (V) against time (t).
They are crucial for observing the behaviour of electrical signals,
particularly their frequency (f) and amplitude, with the waveform
given by:

V(t)=A sin 〖(2πft+ϕ〗 where A is the amplitude, f is the frequency,

t is time, and ϕ is the phase angle.

• Other Instruments: Additional instruments like clamp

meters, LCR meters, and frequency counters are used for
specialized measurements.

• Clamp meters, for instance, measure current without

direct contact with the conductor, using the principle of
magnetic induction.

• Applications in Mechatronics: In mechatronics, these

tools are indispensable for designing, testing, and
troubleshooting. For example, a multimeter can identify
circuit faults by measuring deviations in expected
electrical values, while oscilloscopes are vital in
analyzing signal integrity in control systems.
DIGITAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
 Digital Measurement Systems
• Digital measurement systems convert analogue signals into digital
data using Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs).

• This process involves several steps:

• Sampling: The continuous analogue signal is sampled at discrete time intervals.
The sampling rate, denoted by fs, determines how often samples are taken.
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate should be at least twice the
highest frequency present in the signal to avoid aliasing. f_s≥2×f_max.

• Quantization: Each sampled value is quantized to the nearest value represented

by a fixed number of bits. The resolution of an ADC, typically expressed in bits,
determines how finely the input can be quantized. The quantization error is
inversely related to the resolution.

• Binary Encoding: The quantized values are then converted into binary code for
digital representation. Tools like digital multimeters, digital oscilloscopes, and
frequency counters exemplify digital measurement systems. Digital multimeters,
for instance, use an ADC to display voltage, current, or resistance values
directly on a digital screen. Advantages of Digital over Analog Systems: q.
 Digital Measurement Systems
• Accuracy and Precision: Digital systems offer higher accuracy and
precision due to their inherent ability to minimize noise and error in
signal processing.

• In contrast, analogue systems are more prone to errors due to physical

constraints and signal degradation.

• The accuracy of digital systems can be mathematically assessed by

their resolution. For an n-bit ADC, the resolution is given by:

𝑉#$%
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = &
2

• where Vref is the reference voltage and n is the number of bits. Higher
resolution implies greater accuracy.
 Digital Measurement Systems
• Data Processing and Storage: Digital systems facilitate easier
data processing and storage. They can interface with computers
and other digital devices, allowing for efficient data logging,
analysis, and remote monitoring.

• The digital format is ideal for applying mathematical algorithms

for signal processing, such as the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for
frequency analysis or digital filtering techniques.

• Consistency and Reproducibility: Digital measurements are less

subject to reading errors and provide more consistent and
reproducible results. Analogue readings, conversely, can vary due
to factors like pointer parallax or user interpretation.
Types of Errors in Measurement
 Types of Errors in Measurement
• In the precision-driven field of mechatronics, understanding the types of
errors that can occur during measurement is crucial. These errors can
significantly impact the accuracy and reliability of mechatronic systems.

• Broadly, measurement errors are categorized into two types: systematic

errors and random errors. Each type has distinct causes and characteristics,
and understanding these can help in minimizing their impact.

• Systematic Errors: Systematic errors are predictable and consistent

inaccuracies that occur in measurements. They are often due to identifiable
factors such as faulty equipment, calibration errors, or flawed measurement
techniques.

• These errors are repeatable and follow a discernible pattern, which means
they can often be quantified and corrected. One common source of
systematic errors is instrument bias, where a device consistently measures a
value higher or lower than the actual value.
 Types of Errors in Measurement
• For instance, a scale that is improperly calibrated might always
display a weight 0.5 kg more than the actual weight. Another
source can be environmental influences, such as temperature or
humidity, which can systematically affect the performance of
sensors and instruments.

• The key to handling systematic errors lies in their predictability.

Once identified, these errors can often be compensated for either
by calibrating the equipment, using correction factors or
redesigning the measurement process to eliminate the source of
the error.

• Random Errors: In contrast, random errors occur sporadically

and without a predictable pattern. They are caused by
unpredictable and uncontrollable factors, often stemming from
environmental conditions or human factors.
 Digital Measurement Systems
• For instance, slight variations in temperature, electrical noise, or even
the manual handling of instruments can introduce random errors.
Random errors, by their nature, cannot be completely eliminated.

• However, their impact can be minimized through good experimental

design and technique. Repeated measurements and averaging can be
used to reduce the influence of random errors, as these errors tend to
cancel each other out over a series of observations.

• In mechatronics, where precision is paramount, understanding these

types of errors is crucial for system design and quality control.
Accurate measurements are the foundation upon which reliable
mechatronic systems are built.

• By identifying potential sources of systematic and random errors and

employing strategies to mitigate their effects, engineers can ensure
that their systems perform as intended, maintaining the high standards
required in mechatronic applications.
 Digital Measurement Systems
• Strategies for Error Reduction in Mechatronics Measurements: In the
precise and complex field of mechatronics, the accuracy of measurements is
paramount. Even minor errors can significantly affect the performance and
reliability of mechatronic systems.

• Therefore, implementing effective strategies for error reduction is essential.

The three key strategies for error reduction in mechatronics measurements
are regular calibration , environmental control, and the selection of
appropriate measuring devices .

• Regular Calibration Against Known Standards: Calibration is the process of

setting or correcting a measuring device by comparing it with a known
standard. Regular calibration is crucial for maintaining the accuracy of
measurement instruments.

• Over time, the performance of sensors and measuring devices can drift due
to wear and tear, environmental factors, or simple ageing. By calibrating
these instruments against known standards, systematic errors can be
identified and corrected.
 Digital Measurement Systems
• Environmental Control to Minimize External Influences: Environmental
factors such as temperature, humidity, vibration, and electromagnetic
interference can introduce errors in measurements. Controlling the
environment in which measurements are taken can significantly reduce
these errors.

• This might involve measures such as temperature-controlled rooms for

sensitive measurements, shielding for electromagnetic interference, or
vibration damping for precision instruments.

• In the context of mechatronics, consider a high-precision optical

measurement system used for component inspection. Fluctuations in
temperature can cause expansion or contraction in materials, affecting the
accuracy of measurements. By maintaining a stable temperature in the
measurement environment, such errors can be minimized.

• Selecting Appropriate Measuring Devices with Suitable Range and

Resolution: The choice of measuring devices is critical in minimizing errors.
Devices should be selected based on their suitability for the specific
measurement task, considering factors like range, resolution, and sensitivity.
 Digital Measurement Systems
• The range of the device should be appropriate for the magnitude of measurements
being taken, while the resolution should be fine enough to detect the smallest
significant change in the variable being measured.

• For instance, in a mechatronic system where precise distance measurement is

crucial, selecting a sensor with an appropriate range and high resolution is vital.

• Using a sensor with a range too large might compromise resolution, while a range
too small might not capture the full extent of measurements needed.

• To conclude, reducing measurement errors is a critical aspect of ensuring the

reliability and accuracy of mechatronic systems. Strategies such as regular
calibration, environmental control, and the careful selection of measurement
devices are fundamental to achieving high-quality measurements.

• Implementing these strategies effectively requires a thorough understanding of

both the measurement system and the environmental factors affecting it,
underlining the importance of precision and attention to detail in the field of
mechatronics.
Signal Conditioning
 Signal Conditioning
• Signal conditioning is a critical
process in measurement systems,
involving the manipulation of an
analogue signal to meet the
requirements of the next stage for
further processing.

• Two primary aspects of signal

conditioning are amplification and
filtering . Amplification increases
signal strength while filtering
enhances signal quality by
removing unwanted frequencies.

• Role of Amplifiers in
Measurement Systems: Amplifiers
play a vital role in measurement
systems by increasing the
amplitude of weak signals, making
them suitable for processing and
analysis.
 Signal Conditioning
• Amplifiers are crucial when
the signal is too weak to be
detected by measuring
instruments or needs to be
normalized for consistent
readings.

• Mathematically, amplification can

be expressed as:

𝑉_𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴×𝑉𝑖𝑛

• Where Vout is the output voltage,

Vin is the input voltage, and A is
the gain of the amplifier.
 Signal Conditioning
• Instrumentation Amplifiers: These
provide high gain accuracy and
stability.

• They are used for precise

measurements where low noise and
high input impedance are required.

• Charge Amplifiers: Used for

piezoelectric sensors, converting
charge (Q) to voltage (V).

• The output voltage is proportional to

the input charge, given by:

𝑄
𝑉!"# =
𝐶$

• Where Cf is the feedback capacitor.

 Signal Conditioning
• Filtering: Filtering is essential in signal
processing to remove noise and interference
from the signal, enhancing the quality and
reliability of measurements.

• It allows for the isolation of the desired

frequency components from a complex
signal.

• The general form of a filter transfer function

is:

𝑉!"# (𝑓)
𝐻(𝑓) =
𝑉%& (𝑓)

• where H(f) is the transfer function, Vout(f) is

the output signal, and Vin(f) is the input
signal, all in the frequency domain. Types of
Filters and Their Applications:
 Signal Conditioning
• Low-Pass Filters: Allow signals with a
frequency lower than a set cut-off
frequency to pass through and attenuate
frequencies above the cut-off.

• The transfer function of a first-order low-

pass filter is given by:

!
𝐻(𝑓) = !
!"# !
"

• Where fc is the cut-off frequency and j is

the imaginary unit.

• These filters are used in audio signal

processing and data acquisition.
 Signal Conditioning
• High-Pass Filters: Opposite of low-pass,
these filters allow signals above a certain
frequency to pass and attenuate lower
frequencies. They are used in applications
like audio amplification to eliminate low-
frequency noise.

• Band-Pass Filters: These filters allow signals

within a specific frequency range to pass and
attenuate signals outside this range. They are
commonly used in wireless communication to
select desired frequency bands.

• Band-Stop (Notch) Filters: Designed to reject

a specific frequency band and allow others to
pass. They are useful in applications where a
specific interference frequency needs to be
eliminated, such as in electrocardiogram
(ECG) signal processing.
Control Systems in Mechatronics
 Control Systems in Mechatronics
• Control systems are the backbone of mechatronics, governing the
operation and functionality of mechatronic devices and systems.

• These systems can be broadly categorized into open-loop and closed-loop

systems, each with its unique features and applications. Additionally,
understanding basic control strategies, including Proportional (P), Integral
(I), Derivative (D), and their combination in PID control, is crucial for
students of mechatronics.

• Open-loop Systems: Open-loop control systems operate without feedback,

meaning the control action is not dependent on the output.

• In these systems, the input directly determines the output, without any
mechanism to adjust it based on the actual performance.
 Control Systems in Mechatronics
• Open-loop systems are simpler
and generally less expensive to
design and implement.
However, they lack the ability to
compensate for disturbances or
changes in the system, which
can lead to inaccuracies.
• A simple example of an open
loop system is a conventional
electric toaster, where the time
to toast is set manually and
does not adjust based on the
actual toast colour or
temperature.
Actuating
Input Signal Output
Controller Plant
• The basic components of an open loop system
include:
• Input Signal: This is the desired operation or
the command for the system.
• Controller: This component processes the
input signal and decides the action to take.
• Actuator: Converts the control signal from the
controller into action.
• Process or Plant: The system that performs
the desired operation. Output: The result of
the process.
 Control Systems in Mechatronics
• Closed Loop Control System: A
closed-loop control system, on the
other hand, uses feedback to
compare the actual output to the
desired output.

• The system then adjusts its actions

based on this feedback to ensure the
output meets the desired goal.

• An example of a closed loop system

is a thermostat-controlled heating
system, where the actual room
temperature is constantly compared
to the set temperature, and the
heating element is turned on or off
accordingly.
 Control Systems in Mechatronics
• The basic components of a closed-loop
system include
• Reference Input (Desired Output): The
target or desired state of the system.
• Measuring Device (Sensor): Measures the
actual output and feeds the data back to
the comparison element.
• Comparison Element: Compares the
actual output with the reference input and
generates an error signal if there is a
discrepancy.
• Controller: Processes the error signal and
decides the action to take to correct the
error.
• Actuator: Implements the control action
decided by the controller.
• Process or Plant: The system that
performs the desired operation and
produces the output.
• Feedback Path: The path through which
the system output is fed back for
comparison with the reference input.
Thank You!