09-02-2022

STATIC PERFORMANCE CHARECTERSTICS

OF FLUID MEASURING SYSTEMS

- Prof. Ruchi Khare

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
MANIT, Bhopal

INTRODUCTION

• The detailed specifications of the functional characteristics of any measuring system

are termed its performance characteristics. These are in general, indicative of the
capabilities and limitations of the instrument for a particular application.

• Therefore, the knowledge of the performance characteristics is quite important as it

enables us to have quantitative estimates of the positive as well as the negative
points of various commercially available measuring system.
1. Static characteristics and
2. Dynamic characteristics.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 2

1
 09-02-2022

Static Characteristics
Desired input to the instrument may be constant or varying slowly with
respect to time.
o Accuracy,
o Precision,
o Resolution,
o Sensitivity,
o Linearity,
o Hysteresis,
o Drift,
o Over Load Capacity

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 3

Dynamic Characteristics

• Certain situations, where the desired input is not constant but

varies rapidly with the time.
• In such cases, the dynamic characteristics of the instruments
should also be known.
• These are generally represented by the relations between input
and output parameters that are governed by the relevant
differential equations applicable in the given situation.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 4

2
 09-02-2022

ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES IN PERFORMANCE

PARAMETERS

• Difficulties with the instrument are:

1. The change in sensitivity of instruments due to certain perturbations
results in influencing all output values, generally equally by a particular
quantity. These are caused due to worn out parts, effect of changes in
the environment on the equipment or the user, etc.
2. Failure of the instrument to have the same output for repeated
applications of any particular value of the input.
3. .

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 5

Errors &…………………..

• No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy and

precision.
• Therefore, it is instructive to know the various types of errors
and uncertainties that are in general, associated with
measurement sys-
tem.
• It is also important to know how these errors are propagated.
This is because if an error is detected, then it can be
eliminated or its effect can be accounted for in the form of a
suitable correction

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 6

3
 09-02-2022

Types of Errors
Systematic or
Cumulative Errors Errors are those that tend to have the same magnitude and sign for a given set of conditions. Because the algebraic
sign is the same, they tend to accumulate and hence are known as cumulative errors.
• Instrument Bias

Certain errors are inherent in the instrument systems. These may be caused due to poor design/construction of the
instrument. Errors in the divisions of graduated scales, inequality of the balance arms, irregular springs tension, etc.,
Instrument errors cause such errors.

• Can be avoided

caused due to variation of conditions external to the measuring device, including the conditions in the area surrounding
Environmental errors the instrument. Commonly occurring changes in environmental conditions that may affect the instrument characteristics
are the effects of changes in temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, wind forces, magnetic or electrostatic fields,
etc.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 7

Accidental or Random Errors

• These errors are caused due to random variations in the parameter or

the system of measurement.
• Such errors vary in magnitude and may be either positive or negative
on the basis of chance alone.
• Since these errors are in either direction, they tend to compensate
one another.
• Therefore, these errors are also called chance or compensating type
of errors.
• A good quality instrument has least random errors

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 8

4
 09-02-2022

Reasons of Random Errors

• Inconsistencies associated with accurate measurement of small

quantities
• Presence of certain system defects
• Effect of unrestrained and randomly varying parameters

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 9

Miscellaneous Type of Gross Errors

Cannot be strictly classified as either systematic or random as they are partly
systematic and partly random.
Personal or human errors : These are caused due to the limitations in the
human senses. For example, one may sometimes consistently read the observed
value either high or low and thus introduce systematic errors in the results.
Errors due to faulty components/adjustments : Sometimes there is a
misalignment of moving parts, electrical leakage, poor optics, etc. in the
measuring system.
Improper application of the instrument: Errors of this type are caused due to
the use of instrument in conditions which do not conform to the desired
design/operating conditions.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 10

5
 09-02-2022

Types of Uncertainties

• Most of the errors are compensated

• Random errors and the random component of gross errors in general,
constitute the chief source of uncertainty in experiments. In fact, the
term 'random' error is a misnomer, it should really be termed as
`degree/amount of uncertainty' which is evaluated from the
dispersion/scatter in the data.
• Their algebraic sign vary from one observation to another, yet
fortunately they follow a definite mathematical law called the normal or
Gaussian distribution

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 11

Uncertainty can be of two types

• External estimate of uncertainty UE This is usually assessed

from the knowledge of the experiment, the limitation of the apparatus,
the instrument manufacturer's literature, etc. However, in the absence
of the above information, as a thumb rule, the resolution that is the
smallest confidently measurable input change is considered as the
external estimate of uncertainty.
• Internal estimate of uncertainty U1 This type of uncertainty is
that which is inherent in the data itself and its quantitative assessment
is termed as the internal estimate of uncertainty U1.
• This occurs because an instrument may indicate a slightly different
value every time a given input is fed to the instrument.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 12

6
 09-02-2022

Internal standard error, is estimated as follows:

1. A reasonably large number of data of a particular measurement is obtained. This data

is termed as 'population' and it is assumed to include all possible values.
2. The population is broken up into small portions termed 'samples'. The samples are so
selected that they have equitable distribution of all the possible measurements. This
process is known as random sampling.
3. The means and standard deviations of each of the samples are evaluated which are
considered estimated true value and uncertainty respectively for the sample.
4. To obtain the best estimate of the mean value, the mean of sample means, which is
in effect population mean, is calculated.
5. To obtain the overall estimate of uncertainty, the standard deviation of sample means
is calculated

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 13

• Generally, any experiment is considered consistent if the external and

internal estimates of uncertainties are of the same order of
magnitude. This criterion ensures minimum overall uncertainty in the
experiment. However, if these estimates differ considerably, then the
higher of the two is generally taken as uncertainty of the experiment.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 14

7
 09-02-2022

PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTIES IN
COMPOUND QUANTITIES

• In any experiment, a number of different measurements of

different quantities may be carried out to determine a certain
parameter.
• For example, if we wish to calculate the magnitude of force, we
have to measure the magnitudes of mass and acceleration.
• Both these measurements would involve uncertainties. Now, our
aim is to estimate the uncertainty in the force due to the
combined effect of the uncertainties in mass and acceleration.
• To compute the overall uncertainty due to the combined effect of
the uncertainties of different variables,

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 15

Propagation …………………….

• We consider the following equation in most general form:

• where y is a parameter that depends on independent variables xl, x2, . . .

x„ . . . , xn. Writing Eq. (a) in the differential form we get,

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 16

8
 09-02-2022

Now, the maximum value of uncertainty in y, i.e. Uy max would be obtained when all the
uncertainties happen to have the same sign

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 17

Propagation…………….

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 18

9
 09-02-2022

Probability……………….

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 19

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 20

10
 09-02-2022

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 21

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 22

11
 09-02-2022

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 23

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 24

12
 09-02-2022

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 25

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 26

13
 09-02-2022

Accuracy

• Accuracy of a measuring system is defined as the closeness of the instrument

output to the true value of the measured quantity (as per standards).
• It is specified as the percentage deviation or inaccuracy of the measurement from
the true value.
• The accuracy of an instrument depends on the various systematic errors involved in
the measurement process.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 27

Precision

• Precision is defined as the ability of the instrument to reproduce a

certain set of readings within a given accuracy.
• For example, if a particular transducer is subjected to an accurately
known input and if the repeated read outs of the instrument lie within
say ±1%, then the precision or alternatively the precision error of the
instrument would be stated as ±1%.
• A highly precise instrument is one that gives the same output
information, for a given input information when the reading is repeated
a large number of times.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 28

14
 09-02-2022

Precession………………..

• Precision of an instrument is in fact, dependent on the repeatability. The

term repeatability can be defined as the ability of the instrument to
reproduce a group of measurements of the same measured quantity, made
by the same observer, using the same instrument, under the same
conditions.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 29

Accuracy Versus Precision

• Accuracy represents the degree of correctness of the measured value with

respect to the true value.
• Precision represents degree of repeatability of several independent
measurements of the desired input at the same reference conditions.
• As mentioned before, accuracy and precision involved in a measurement
are dependent on the systematic and random errors, respectively.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 30

15
 09-02-2022

• Dart Game

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 31

Accuracy Versus Precision

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 32

16
 09-02-2022

Resolution (or Discrimination)

• It is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that

can be detected with certainty by the instrument.
• It is the degree of fineness with which a measurement can be
made.
• The least count of any instrument is taken as the resolution of the
instrument.
• For example, a ruler with a least count of 1 mm may be used to
measure to the nearest 0.5 mm by interpolation. Therefore, its
resolution is considered as 0.5 mm.
• A high resolution instrument is one that can detect smallest
possible variation in the input.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 33

Threshold

• It is defined as the minimum value of input below which no

output can be detected.
• Resolution refers to the smallest measurable input above the
zero value.
• Both threshold and resolution can either be specified as
absolute quantities in terms of input units or as percentage of
full scale deflection.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 34

17
 09-02-2022

Static Sensitivity

• Defined as the ratio of the magnitude of response (output signal) to

the magnitude of the quantity being measured (input signal).

Sensitivity is represented by the slope of the input-output curve if the ordinates are
represented in actual units.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 35

Sensitivity

• The sensitivity of a typical linear spring, whose extension is directly

proportional to the applied force can be defined as say, 450 N/mm.
Similarly, the sensitivity of a non-linear type of copper/constantan
thermocouple is found to be maximum at 350 °C and is 60 µV/°C.
• The reciprocal of the sensitivity is commonly used. This is termed inverse
sensitivity or the deflection factor.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 36

18
 09-02-2022

Linearity

• A linear indicating scale is one of the most desirable features of any instrument.
Therefore, manufacturers of instruments always attempt to design their instruments so
that the output is a linear function of the input.
• Maximum departure from linearity is often specified in one of the following ways.
• Independent of the input
• Proportional to input
• Combined independent and proportional to the input

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 37

Linearity

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 38

19
 09-02-2022

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 39

• In actual practice the non-linearity of a complex type of calibration

curve is obtained as :
• ±y% of full-scale deflection and also as
• ±x% of the input value.
• The non-linearity of the instrument is then stated as ±y% of full
scale or ±x% of the input, whichever is greater.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 40

20
 09-02-2022

Range and Span

• The range of the instrument is specified by the lower and upper limits in
which it is designed to operate for measuring, indicating or recording the
measured variable.
• The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values is
termed as the span of the instrument.
• The range of the instrument can either be unidirectional (e.g., 0-100°C) or
bidirectional (e.g., —10 to 100 °C) or it can be expanded type (e.g., 80-
100°C) or zero suppressed (e.g., 5-40°C).

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 41

Hysteresis

• It is defined as the magnitude of error

caused in the output for a given value of
input, when this value is approached from
opposite directions, i.e. from ascending
order and then descending order.
• This is caused by backlash, elastic
deformations, magnetic characteristics, but
is mainly caused due to frictional effects.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 42

21
 09-02-2022

Dead Band

• It is defined as the largest change of

the measurand to which the instrument
does not respond.
• In the output-input curve with
hysteresis effect due to friction, the
extent of the dead band is shown in
Fig.
• In such a case, it is approximately
twice the threshold value.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 43

Backlash
• It is defined as the maximum
distance or angle through which
any part of the mechanical
system may be moved in one
direction without causing motion
of the next part. The output-input
characteristics of an instrument
system with backlash error is
similar to hysteresis loop

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 44

22
 09-02-2022

Drift

• It is defined as the variation of

output for a given input caused
due to change in the sensitivity
of the instrument due to certain
interfering inputs like temperature
changes, component instabilities,
etc.

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 45

VIII SEM FLUID MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS CE451 46

23