LESSON 1.

MEASUREMENT
 Measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as compared to a basic reference
quantity of the same kind.
 The act or process of measuring
 A figure, extent, or amount obtain by measuring
 The determination or estimation of ratios of quantities. Quantity and measurement are mutually defined: quantitative
attributes are those possible to measure.

International System of Units

The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI from the French language name Système International d'Unités)
is the modern revision of the metric system.

Base quantity Unit Symbol

time second s
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
electric current ampere A
temperature kelvin K
amount ofmole mol
substance

The units and their physical quantities are the second for time, the meter for length or distance, the kilogram for
mass, the ampere for electric current, the kelvin for thermodynamic temperature, the mole for amount of substance.

The names and symbols of SI base units are written in lowercase, except the symbols of those named after a person,
which are written with an initial capital letter. For example, the meter has the symbol m, but the kelvin has symbol K,
because it is named after Lord Kelvin and the ampere with symbol A is named after André-Marie Ampère.

Length
A ruler or rule is a tool used in, for example, geometry, technical drawing, engineering, and carpentry, to measure
lengths or distances or to draw straight lines. Strictly speaking, the ruler is the instrument used to rule straight lines.

Time
An abstract measurement of elemental changes over a non-spatial continuum. It is denoted by numbers and/or
named periods such as hours, days, weeks, months and years. It is an apparently irreversible series of occurrences.

Mass
Refers to the intrinsic property of all material objects to resist changes in their momentum. Weight, on the other
hand, refers to the downward force produced when a mass is in a gravitational field. In free fall, (no net gravitational forces)
objects lack weight but retain their mass. The Imperial units of mass include the ounce, pound, and ton. The metric unit’s
gram and kilogram are units of mass.

One device for measuring weight or mass is called a weighing scale or, often, simply a scale.

Measurement Conversion Chart

LENGTH
Metric Customary
1 kilometer = 1, 000 meters 1 mile = 5,280 feet
1 meter = 100 centimeter 1 mile = 1,760 yards
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 meter = 1,000 millimeters 1 yard = 3 feet
1 centimeter = 10 millimeters 1 foot = 12 inches

CAPACITY
Metric
1 liter = 1000 milliliters 1 gallon = 4 quarts
1 quart = 2 pints
1 pint = 2 cups
1 cup = 8 ounces
MASS and WEIGHT
Metric
1 kilogram = 1,000 grams 1 ton = 2,000 pounds
1 gram = 1,000 milligrams 1 pound = 16 ounces
TIME
1 year = 365 days
1 year = 52 weeks
1 year = 12 months
1 week = 7 days
 1 day = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds

Some special names:

Some non-systematic names are applied for some multiples of some units.

100 kilograms = 1 quintal; 1000 kilogram = 1 tonne;

10 years = 1 decade; 100 years = 1 century; 1000 years = 1 millennium

SAMPLE:

1. There are ___ millimeters(mm) in 2.7 centimeters (cm).

2. Convert 1.7 km to m.
3. How many millimeters are in 5 centimeters?
4. How many centimeters are in a meter?
5. Convert: 3 kg = ______ g
6. What metric unit would be used to measure the amount of liquid in a baby bottle?
7. Which is greater? 9,000 milliliters or 10 liters
8. 42 L = ___mL

ACTIVITY:

1. Rachel has a rope of length 40 m. She gave 12 m 53 cm to Sam, 18 m 35 cm to Ron and 9 m 7 cm to Jack. What length of
rope is still left with Rachel?

2. John has a jar filled with juice. After he poured 350 ml of juice in each 8 glasses he was still left with 200 ml juice in the
jar. What was the capacity of jar in liters?

3. A worker transferred 50 bags of rice weighing 38 kg 500 g each into a truck. The weight of empty truck is 1480 kg. What
will be the weight of the truck with the bags?

4. Jane has 63 m of ribbon. If she cuts 56 m 21 cm ribbon from it, what length of ribbon will be left?

5. Victor wants to make a book tower of height 48 cm. If the thickness of each book is 12 mm, how many books will he need
to make the desired height?

6. Adrian has to take 2 spoons of multivitamin syrup each day. If the capacity of the spoon is 15 ml, what quantity of syrup
will be taken by him in a week?

7. Neil has a bag of pulses which weighs 25 kg. While putting them in the shelf, he tore the bag and hence 1850 g of
pulses fell on the floor. What quantity of pulses is still there in the bag?
8. A box of frozen vegetables weighing 144 kg 780 g was delivered at a grocery shop. If there were 15 packets of equal
weight
inside the box, what was the weight of each bag?
KEY ANSWER:

SAMPLE

1. 27 mm
2. 1700m
3. 50mm
4. 100 cm
5. 3000g
6. mL
7. 10 L
8. 42,000

ACTIVITY

1. 0.05 m
2. 3 liters
3. 3405 kg
4. 6.79 m
5. 40 books
6. 210 ml
7. 23.15 kg
8. 9.652 kg

Lesson 2. Scientific notation is a form of presenting very large numbers or very small numbers in a simpler form. As
we know, the whole numbers can be extended till infinity, but we cannot write such huge numbers on a piece of paper. Also,
the numbers which are present at the millions place after the decimal needed to be represented in a simpler form. Thus, it is
difficult to represent a few numbers in their expanded form. Hence, we use scientific notations.

The following table and tips are intended to be used as a reference:

For example, 100000000 (100 million) can be written as 108, which is the scientific notation. Here the exponent is
positive. Similarly, 0.0000001 is a very small number which can be represented as 10-8, where the exponent is negative.

Format: C.MMMMM x 10e

where: C - the characteristic digit, may be any digit from 0-9

M – the mantissa digits, may be any digit from 0-9
10 – base
e – exponent, the number of times the decimal point is moved to either towards left or right

Scientific Notation Rules

To determine the power or exponent of 10, we must follow the rule listed below:

 The base should be always 10

 The exponent must be a non-zero integer, that means it can be either positive or negative
 The absolute value of the coefficient is greater than or equal to 1 but it should be less than 10
 Coefficients can be positive or negative numbers including whole and decimal numbers
 The mantissa carries the rest of the significant digits of the number

Let us understand how many places we need to move the decimal point after the single-digit number with the help
of the below representation.

1. If the given number is multiples of 10 then the decimal point has to move to the left, and the power of 10 will be
positive.
Example: 6000 = 6 × 103 is in scientific notation.
2. If the given number is smaller than 1, then the decimal point has to move to the right, so the power of 10 will be
negative.
Example: 0.006 = 6 × 0.001 = 6 × 10-3 is in scientific notation.
To figure out the power of 10, think "how many places do I move the decimal point?"

When the number is 10 or greater, the decimal point has to move to the left, and the power of 10 is positive.
When the number is smaller than 1, the decimal point has to move to the right, so the power of 10 is negative.
Scientific Notation Examples:

1.) 490000000 = 4.9×108

2.) 1230000000 = 1.23×109
3.) 50500000 = 5.05 x 107
4.) 0.000000097 = 9.7 x 10-8
5.) 0.0000212 = 2.12 x 10-5

Positive and Negative Exponent

When the scientific notation of any large numbers is expressed, then we use positive exponents for base 10.
For example:
20000 = 2 x 104, where 4 is the positive exponent.

When the scientific notation of any small numbers is expressed, then we use negative exponents for base 10.
For example:
0.0002 = 2 x 10-4, where -4 is the negative exponent.

From the above, we can say that the number greater than 1 can be written as the expression with positive
exponent, whereas the numbers less than 1 with negative exponent.

Problems and Solutions

Question 1: Convert 0.00000046 into scientific notation.

Solution: Move the decimal point to the right of 0.00000046 up to 7 places.

The decimal point was moved 7 places to the right to form the number 4.6
Since the numbers are less than 10 and the decimal is moved to the right. Hence, we use a negative exponent here.

⇒ 0.00000046 = 4.6 × 10-7 (This is the scientific notation.)

Question 2: Convert 301000000 in scientific notation.

Solution: Move the decimal to the left 8 places so it is positioned to the right of the leftmost non-zero digits 3.01000000.
Remove all the zeroes and multiply the number by 10.
Now the number has become = 3.01.

Since the number is greater than 10 and the decimal is moved to left, therefore, we use here a positive exponent.

Hence, 3.01 × 108 is the scientific notation of the number.

Lesson 3. Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is how close you are to the true value. A measured value that's far from a true value is inaccurate,
while a measure that is close to a true value is accurate. For example, let’s say you know your true height is exactly 5’9″.
You measure yourself with a yardstick and get 5’0″. Your measurement is not accurate.
You measure yourself again with a laser yardstick and get 5’9″. Your measurement is accurate.
Accuracy is the distance of a measured value to the true value. When throwing darts, hitting a bullseye is accurate while
hitting an outer ring is not accurate.

Precision is how close two or more measurements are to each other.

If someone was shooting at a target, their aim would be precise if all of their shots were at or near the exact same point.
If you weigh a given substance five times and get 3.2 kg each time, then your measurement is very precise but not
necessarily accurate.

If you are precise, that doesn’t necessarily mean you are accurate. However, if you are consistently accurate, you are also
precise.

Accuracy and Precision Examples:

Example 1. The top left image shows the target hit at high precision and accuracy. The top right image shows the
target hit at a high accuracy but low precision. The bottom left image shows the target hit at a high precision but low
accuracy. The bottom right image shows the target hit at low accuracy and low precision.

Example 2. A good analogy for understanding accuracy and precision is to imagine a football player shooting at
the goal. If the player shoots into the goal, he is said to be accurate. A football player who keeps striking the same
goalpost is precise but not accurate. Therefore, a football player can be accurate without being precise if he hits the ball
all over the place but still scores. A precise player will hit the ball to the same spot repeatedly, irrespective of whether he
scores or not. A precise and accurate football player will not only aim at a single spot but also score the goal.

Example 3. If the weather temperature reads 28 °C outside and it is 28 °C outside, then the measurement is said to
be accurate. If the thermometer continuously registers the same temperature for several days, the measurement is also
precise.

Example 4. If you take the measurement of the mass of a body of 20 kg and you get 17.4,17,17.3 and 17.1, your
weighing scale is precise but not very accurate. If your scale gives you values of 19.8, 20.5, 21.0, and 19.6, it is more
accurate than the first balance but not very precise.

Accurate and precise: If a weather thermometer reads 75 oF outside and it really is 75oF, the thermometer is accurate. If
the thermometer consistently registers the exact temperature for several days in a row, the thermometer is also precise.

Precise, but not accurate: A refrigerator thermometer is read ten times and registers degrees Celsius as: 39.1, 39.4, 39.1,
39.2, 39.1, 39.2, 39.1, 39.1, 39.4, and 39.1. However, the real temperature inside the refrigerator is 37 degrees C. The
thermometer isn’t accurate (it’s almost two degrees off the true value), but as the numbers are all close to 39.2, it is
precise.

Difference Between Accuracy and Precision

In the previous few sections having discussed what each term means, let us now look at their differences.

Accuracy  Precision

Precision implies the level of variation that lies

Accuracy refers to the level of agreement between the actual
in the values of several measurements of the
measurement and the absolute measurement.
same factor.

Represents how closely the results agree with the standard Represents how closely results agree with one
value. another.

Multiple measurements or factors are needed to

Single-factor or measurement are needed.
comment about precision.
 It is possible for a measurement to be accurate on occasion as Results can be precise without being accurate.
a fluke. For a measurement to be consistently accurate, it Alternatively, the results can be precise and
should also be precise. accurate.

Activity
Study the image below. The bull’s-eye represents the accepted true value. Each cross represents a repeated
measurement of the same quantity. Describe each of the figures by choosing its description inside the box.

Q1) The volume of a liquid is 26 mL. A student measures the volume and finds it to be 26.2 mL, 26.1 mL, 25.9 mL, and
26.3 mL in the first, second, third, and fourth trial, respectively. Which of the following statements is true for his
measurements?

a. They are neither precise nor accurate.

b. They have poor accuracy.
c. They have good precision.
d. They have poor precision.

Q2) The volume of a liquid is 20.5 mL. Which of the following sets of measurement represents the value with good
accuracy?

a. 18.6 mL, 17.8 mL, 19.6 mL, 17.2 mL

b. 19.2 mL, 19.3 mL, 18.8 mL, 18.6 mL
c. 18.9 mL, 19.0 mL, 19.2 mL, 18.8 mL
d. 20.2 mL, 20.5 mL, 20.3 mL, 20.1 mL

Q3) If the player shoots ball into the goal in one shot, he is said to be accurate or precise? _______________________
Q4) It is a measure of how close measurements come to each other when they are made in the same way.
______________
Q5) How close a measurement is to the accepted value is called.. ______________

This bullseye demonstrates...

Q6) ____________________ Q7) __________________

NAME: _______________________________________

WORKSHEET

A. Measurement
Unit Conversion Chart
1. Which is greater: 45 miles or 63km? ___________

2. What is the height in meters of a 5’3” person? ______________

3. 3 yard = ____ inches

4. 12 feet = _______ yard

5. How many cups in 32 ounces? __________

6. How many inches are in one foot? _________

7. Selena’s favorite basketball player is 6 feet 8 inches tall. How tall is Selena’s basketball player in inches? _________

8. Order the following units from smallest to largest: miles, feet, inches, yards : ______________________________

9. 4,000 lb = ___________ tons

10. 5 years into minutes? ______________

B. Scientific Notation

11. Convert 0.00000046 into scientific notation. ________________

12. Convert 301000000 in scientific notation. ___________________

13. Convert 1.36 x 107 from scientific notation to standard notation. __________

14.) 28100000 ____________________________________

15.) 9.8 x 10-2 _________________

C. Accuracy and Precision

16. When you are measuring the value of resistance using a digital multimeter. The value of resistance is actually 35
Ohms,
but multimeter is showing 33 Ohms consistently 10 times.

________________________________

17. Let’s say the temperature of an object is 60-degree Celsius. And thermometer is showing 60 degrees for all readings.

That means thermometer is ______________________________.

Lesson 4. RANDOM and SYSTEMATIC ERROR

In scientific research, measurement error is the difference between an observed value and the true value of
something.

There are two main types of measurement error:

a. Random error is a chance difference between the observed and true values of something (e.g., a researcher
misreading a weighing scale records an incorrect measurement).
 b. Systematic error is a consistent or proportional difference between the observed and true values of something
(e.g., a miscalibrated scale consistently registers weights as higher than they actually are).

By recognizing the sources of error, you can reduce their impacts and record accurate and precise measurements.

Precision vs accuracy
Random error mainly affects precision, which is how reproducible the same measurement is under equivalent
circumstances. In contrast, systematic error affects the accuracy of a measurement, or how close the observed value is to
the true value.
Taking measurements is similar to hitting a central target on a dartboard. For accurate measurements, you aim to
get your dart (your observations) as close to the target (the true values) as you possibly can. For precise measurements,
you aim to get repeated observations as close to each other as possible.
Random error introduces variability between different measurements of the same thing, while systematic error
skews your measurement away from the true value in a specific direction.

When you only have random error, if you measure the same thing multiple times, your measurements will tend to
cluster or vary around the true value. Some values will be higher than the true score, while others will be lower. When
you average out these measurements, you’ll get very close to the true score. For this reason, random error isn’t considered
a big problem when you’re collecting data from a large sample but it could affect the precision of your dataset when you
have a small sample. Systematic errors are much more problematic than random errors because they can skew your data
to lead you to false conclusions. If you have systematic error, your measurements will be biased away from the true
values. Ultimately, you might make a false positive or a false negative conclusion.

Random Error Example and Causes

The main reasons for random error are limitations of instruments, environmental factors, and slight variations in
procedure. For example:
a. When weighing yourself on a scale, you position yourself slightly differently each time.
b. When taking a volume reading in a flask, you may read the value from a different angle each time.
c. Measuring the mass of a sample on an analytical balance may produce different values as air currents affect the
balance or as water enters and leaves the specimen.
d. Measuring your height is affected by minor posture changes.
e. Measuring wind velocity depends on the height and time at which a measurement is taken. Multiple readings
must be taken and averaged because gusts and changes in direction affect the value.

Because random error always occurs and cannot be predicted, it's important to take multiple data points and
average them to get a sense of the amount of variation and estimate the true value.

Reducing random error

a. Take repeated measurements

A simple way to increase precision is by taking repeated measurements and using their average. For example, you
might measure the wrist circumference of a participant three times and get slightly different lengths each time. Taking the
mean of the three measurements, instead of using just one, brings you much closer to the true value.

b. Increase your sample size

Large samples have less random error than small samples. That’s because the errors in different directions cancel
each other out more efficiently when you have more data points. Collecting data from a large sample increases precision.

c. Control variables
In controlled experiments, you should carefully control any variables that could impact your measurements.
These should be controlled for all participants so that you remove key sources of random error across the board.

Systematic Error Example and Causes

Systematic error is predictable and either constant or else proportional to the measurement. Systematic errors
primarily influence a measurement's accuracy. Typical causes of systematic error include observational error, imperfect
instrument calibration, and environmental interference. For example:
 a. Forgetting to tare or zero a balance produces mass measurements that are always "off" by the same amount.
An
error caused by not setting an instrument to zero prior to its use is called an offset error.
b. Not reading the meniscus at eye level for a volume measurement will always result in an inaccurate reading.
The
value will be consistently low or high, depending on whether the reading is taken from above or below the
mark.
c. Measuring length with a metal ruler will give a different result at a cold temperature than at a hot temperature,
due to thermal expansion of the material.
d. Measured distance is different using a new cloth measuring tape versus an older, stretched one. Proportional
errors of this type are called scale factor errors.

Once its cause is identified, systematic error may be reduced to an extent. Systematic error can be minimized by
routinely calibrating equipment, using controls in experiments, warming up instruments prior to taking readings, and
comparing values against standards. The best way to avoid systematic error is to be familiar with the limitations of
instruments and experienced with their correct use.

Reducing systematic error

a. Triangulation
Triangulation means using multiple techniques to record observations so that you’re not relying on only one
instrument or method. For example, if you’re measuring stress levels, you can use survey responses, physiological
recordings, and reaction times as indicators. You can check whether all three of these measurements converge or overlap
to make sure that your results don’t depend on the exact instrument used.

b. Regular calibration
Calibrating an instrument means comparing what the instrument records with the true value of a known, standard
quantity. Regularly calibrating your instrument with an accurate reference helps reduce the likelihood of systematic errors
affecting your study.

Key Takeaways: Random Error vs. Systematic Error

 The two main types of measurement error are random error and systematic error.
 Random error causes one measurement to differ slightly from the next. It comes from unpredictable changes
during an experiment.
 Systematic error always affects measurements the same amount or by the same proportion, provided that a
reading is taken the same way each time. It is predictable.
 Random errors cannot be eliminated from an experiment, but most systematic errors may be reduced.

ORAL QUIZ

1. Which of these is NOT true for systematic errors?

a. They arise due to errors in the measuring instruments used.
b. Repeating the observations or increasing the sample size can eliminate them
c. They are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same direction.
d. They arise from the design of the study.
2. Which of these is NOT true for random errors?
a. They are difficult to detect.
b. They do not arise from the design of the study.
c. They are less likely for small sample sizes.

3. Systematic errors lead to a lack of:

a. accuracy in the measurement.
b. significant digits in the measurement.
c. precision in the measurement.

4. Random errors lead to a lack of:

a. accuracy in the measurement.
b. significant digits in the measurement.
c. precision in the measurement.

5. Repeated measurements of a quantity can reduce the effects of:

a. both random errors and systematic errors
b. neither random errors nor random errors
c. random errors
d. systematic errors

6. A measurement is __________________ if the same investigator repeats the experiment under the same conditions and
gets similar result.
a. not always exactly the same c. far from the line of best fit
b. repeated d. repeatable

7. Repeated measurements are not always exactly the same because of ____________________.
a. random errors c. not been calibrated
b. calculating a mean value d. repeated

8. An example of random error would be _____________________ on the thermometer.

a. faulty technique c. unpredictable
b. misreading the temperature d. repeated

9. An example of a random error would ___________________________of a liquid using a measuring cylinder.

a. faulty technique c. incorrectly measuring the volume
b. not been calibrated d. repeatable

10. An example of a systematic error would be using a _________________________.

a. faulty technique c. balance that is not zeroed
b. far from the line of best fit d. unpredictable

11. An example of a systematic error would be using a thermometer which has __________________.
a. making more measurement c. calculating a mean value
b. add together the repeated value d. not been calibrated

12. To calculate a mean value you need first to _______________________.

a. calculating a mean value
b. add together the repeated values
c. making more measurements

13. Secondly you need to ______________________.

a. divide by the number of repeated errors
b. calculating a mean value
c. making more measurements

14. A student collected 3 repeated values: 14 g, 12 g, 16 g. Calculate the mean. _______________

15. A student collected 3 repeated values: 130 s, 142 s, 136 s. Calculate the mean. ______________

KEY TO ANSWER:

1. b 11. d
2. c 12. b
3. a 13. a
4. c 14. 14 g
5. c 15. 136 s
6. d
7. a
8. b
9. c
10. c

Lesson 5. Vector and Scalar Quantities

In mathematics and physics, we have physical quantities which can be categorized in two ways, namely: Scalar
Quantity and Vector Quantity.

Scalar Quantity Definition

The physical quantities which have only magnitude are known as scalar quantities. It is fully described by a
magnitude or a numerical value. Scalar quantity does not have directions. In other terms, a scalar is a measure of quantity.
For example, if I say that the height of a tower is 15 meters, then the height of the tower is a scalar quantity as it needs
only the magnitude of height to define itself. Let’s take another example, suppose the time taken to complete a piece of
work is 3 hours, then in this case also to describe time just need the magnitude which is 3 hours.

Scalar Quantity Examples

Other examples of scalar quantities are mass, speed, distance, time, energy, volume, temperature, and work.
a. Distance - how much ground have you covered? When measuring distance, you're finding the magnitude of space that
you have traveled. It doesn't include displacement or speed; the scalar quantity of distance only discusses
how
much ground was covered.
b. Temperature - when you take your temperature with a thermometer, you're measuring your average thermal energy.
Since
you already know that energy is a scalar quantity, you can probably figure out that temperature is also
scalar.
c. Time - scalar quantities often refer to time, which includes the measurement of years, months, weeks, days, hours,
minutes, seconds, and even milliseconds. There's no consideration or measurement of direction when measuring
time, even though it appears that time is always moving forward.
d. Volume - scalar quantity can refer to the volume of the medium, as in how much of the medium is present. Everything
from tons to ounces to grams, milliliters and micrograms are all scalar quantities, as long as they are applied
to the medium being measured and not the movement of the medium.

Vector Quantity Definition

The physical quantities for which both magnitude and direction are defined distinctly are known as vector
quantities. For example, a boy is riding a bike with a velocity of 30 km/hr in a north-east direction. Then, as we see for
defining the velocity, we need two things, i.e. the magnitude of the velocity and its direction. Therefore, it represents a
vector quantity.

Vector Quantity Examples

Other examples of vector quantities are displacement, acceleration, force, momentum, weight, the velocity of
light, a gravitational field.

a. Weight - the weight of an object is the product of its mass and the gravitational acceleration acting upon it. Because it
involves the force of gravity, weight has a direction (down) as well as magnitude.

Vector Representation
Let us have a look at the line segment drawn below. A vector quantity always has a starting point and an
endpoint. The two endpoints of the given line segment are distinguishable as and. It represents a directed line segment

The directed line segment with an initial point A and terminal point B is symbolically denoted as AB in bold.

Vector Addition
A variety of mathematical operations can be performed with and upon vectors. One such operation is the addition
of vectors. Two vectors can be added together to determine the result (or resultant). The rules for summing vectors (such
as force vectors) were kept relatively simple. Observe the following summations of two force vectors:
These rules for summing vectors were applied to free-body diagrams in order to determine the net force (i.e., the vector
sum of all the individual forces). Sample applications are shown in the diagram below.

Sample. Add the following vectors. Supply your answers with arrows.

Two vectors, A and B, can be added together using vector addition, and the resultant vector can be written as:
R=A+B

Keep in mind that the two vectors with the same magnitude and direction can be added like scalars.
graphical and mathematical methods of vector addition, including:
 Vector Addition Using the Head-to-Tail Rule
 Vector Addition Using the Parallelogram Method
 Vector Addition Using the Components

a. Vector Addition Using the Head-to-Tail Rule

Vector addition can be performed using the famous head-to-tail method. According to this rule, two vectors can
be added together by placing them together so that the first vector’s head joins the tail of the second vector. The resultant
sum vector can then be obtained by joining the first vector’s tail to the head of the second vector. This is sometimes also
known as the triangle method of vector addition.
Vector addition using the head-to-tail rule is illustrated in the image below. The two vectors P and Q are added
using the head-to-tail method, and we can see the triangle formed by the two original vectors and the sum vector. First,
the two vectors P and Q are placed together such that the head of vector P connects the tail of vector Q. Next, to find the
sum, a resultant vector R is drawn such that it connects the tail of P to the head of Q.
Mathematically, the sum, or resultant, vector, R, in the image below can be expressed as:
R =P+Q
b. Vector Addition Using the Parallelogram Method
First, draw the given vectors, A and B, to have the same initial point as shown in the image below. Then, draw a
parallelogram using the copies of the given vectors.
Second, draw the copy of the vector B called B’, and place it parallel to the vector B to connect to the head of the
first vector, A. Similarly, draw a copy of the vector A called A’, and place it parallel to A so that its tail connects with the
head of vector B.
Finally, the resultant of the two vectors, which is equal to the sum of vectors A and B, will be the parallelogram’s
diagonal. It can be drawn by joining the initial point of the two vectors A and B to the head of the vectors A’ and B’.
In summary, three steps are required to perform the vector addition using the parallelogram method:
Step 1: Place the two vectors so that they have a common starting point
Step 2: Draw and complete the parallelogram using copies of the two original vectors
Step 3: The diagonal of the parallelogram is then equal to the sum of the two vectors

Examples

1. Given the two vectors, AB = (3, 2) and BC = (2, 2), determine their sum using the head-to-tail rule.
Solution:
AB + BC = (3, 2) + (2, 2)
AB + BC = (3 + 2, 2 + 2)
AB + BC = (5, 4)

2. 10 km, North + 5 km, West

= 11.18, Northwest

3. 30 km, West + 40 km, South

= 50, southwest

Practice problem 1.
Two people are pushing a disabled car. One exerts a force of 200 N east, the other a force of 150 N east. What is
the net force exerted on the car? (Assume friction to be negligible.)

Solution:
The forces point in the same direction, so they add up.
∑F = F1 + F2
∑F = 200 N + 150 N
∑F = 350 N

The two original forces are east, so the resultant is east. ∑F = 350 N east

Practice problem 2. .
Two soccer players kick a ball simultaneously from opposite sides. Red #3 kicks with 50 N of force while Blue
#5 kicks with 63 N of force. What is the net force on the ball?

Solution:
The forces point in opposite directions, so they subtract.
∑F = Fred − Fblue
∑F = 50 N − 63 N
∑F = −13 N
 How do we describe this direction? No cardinal directions like north, south, east, or west were provided. Nothing
was mentioned about left or right (or even up or down). We assigned negative to the direction Blue #5 was kicking. The
answer was negative, so the net force points in the direction that Blue #5 was kicking. Let's call that away from Blue #5.

∑F = 13 N away from Blue #5

We could also write…

∑F = 13 N toward Red #3

Practice problem 3.
Zac is walks and run around the subdivision 10 km North and 5 km, West. Determine the resulting displacement.

First, we have to use the Pythagorean theorem since it is in the cardinal direction and there is only two vectors.

Second, we will use parallelogram method for graphical representation.

Third Substitute the given vectors to the Pythagorean theorem.

Try to solve:
1. An airplane heads due north at 100 m/s through a 30 m/s cross wind blowing from the east to the west.
Determine
the resultant velocity of the airplane (relative to due north).

v2 = v2plane + v2wind
v2 = (100 m/s)2 + (30 m/s)2
v= 104 m/s

NAME: ___________________________________________________

Directions: Solve for the resultant and show the graphical representation.

1. Two children A and B push a block, if A push the block southward with force of 400 N and at the same time B push
the
block eastward with force of 300 N, then determine the resultant of force A and B.
2. Someone riding a motorcycle from home 6 km to north then 8 km to east. Determine the final position of the person
from
the initial position.

3. A car travels from A to B along 30 km north, then 60 km east, then 110 km south. Determine the displacement of the
car
from A to D.
Hint: AA’ = 60 km
A’D = 110 km – 30 km = 80 km

4. A car travels from town A to town B 100 km north, then to town C 60 km east, and then to town D 20 km south.
Determine
the displacement of the car.
Hint: D’D = 60 km
AD’ = 100 km – 20 km = 80 km
Formula:

5. A traveler walks P = 20 m straight west and then Q = 10 m straight north. Determine how far the traveler is from the
starting point.

SOLUTION:

1.
2.

3.

4.

Lesson 6. Displacement, Time and Average Velocity

Key takeaways:
 Displacement is the overall change in an object’s position.
 Distance is the magnitude of displacement.
 Distance traveled is the length of the path taken to get from start to finish.
 Time is a measurement of how long an event, or an observable change, takes.
 We calculate the average speed, a measurement of how fast an object moves, with the distance traveled divided
by the total time of travel.
  We calculate the average velocity, a measurement of the direction and rate of travel, with the displacement
divided by the time interval spanned.
 A graphical representation of average velocity is useful for visualizing an object’s path and identifying how the
velocity changes over time.

If you’ve ever been a passenger on a dreadfully long road trip for a summer vacation or holiday break, you know
just how much every mile matter. Maybe you asked your driver to speed up a bit, knowing that you might arrive at your
destination just a bit sooner. And when the answer to that question was “No!”, perhaps you studied your planned route,
searching for a shorter path to get a few extra minutes of fun.
Even the most seemingly simple scenarios of movement, like a boring road trip to a much-less-boring theme
park, boil down to a set of fundamental quantities of kinematics. Your journey of understanding how the world works
starts with learning how the most basic systems move: why the physical positions in space, direction of travel, rate of
motion, and time
passed all matter. In this article, we’ll go over the definitions, along with relevant formulas and examples, of
displacement, distance, time, and average velocity. Before you know it, you’ll have a much better understanding of all the
reasons for the response.

Defining Displacement in Physics

Perhaps the most easily observable aspect of motion is differences in position through time. Whenever you get up
from your chair and walk to the kitchen, take the bus from home to school, or walk from your front door to the mailbox,
you change your body’s physical position in space. We understand this concept of a positional change to be displacement.

Displacement is the overall change in an object’s position. Displacement is a vector quantity: it has direction and
magnitude.

Distance Versus Displacement

Distance is the magnitude of displacement. Distance is a scalar quantity: it has magnitude but no direction.
Distance traveled is the length of the path taken to get from start to finish.

So, what’s the difference between all these terms? Unlike displacement, which can have a negative, positive, or
zero value, distance measurements are always non-negative. If this sounds a bit confusing, let’s perform a quick thought
experiment. Imagine you are a track runner competing in the 400 m race. The gun sounds and you begin to make your
way around the track toward the finish line. Now the length of your path from start to finish is 400 m however, the
displacement from start to finish is 0 m in every direction.
Why? Well, your overall position did not change as you ended in the same position you started. As a result, the
distance between start and finish is also 0 m since distance is the magnitude of displacement and the magnitude of zero is
zero.

Distance and Displacement Formulas

We write the formula for displacement mathematically as:

where xi is the initial position and xf is the final position. The Greek letter ,pronounced “Delta”, indicates a change in
some variable. Thus, by x we mean a change in position or displacement.

If you know the length of each leg of a straight-line trip between several pairs of points, you can calculate the
distance by simply finding the sum of all the individual lengths. We can also calculate the distance d between two points
in a two-dimensional plane using the formula:

In words, we’re calculating the magnitude of the displacement vector, which results in a scalar quantity. Both
distance and displacement are measured in units of length, with a corresponding SI base unit of meters, represented by the
symbol m.

Example:
Let’s say you need to go to the local pet store for supplies, located five miles away from your home. You begin
your trip at home, travel by car to the store, and return home. What is your distance traveled and displacement at the end
of the trip?

Demonstrating the calculations of distance, distance traveled, and displacement for a single trip. Let’s start by
calculating the distance traveled. In this case, you completed the five-mile drive twice, so the distance traveled is simply:
The distance you traveled from start to finish of your trip is ten miles. Next, let’s calculate the displacement,

So, despite traveling ten miles, your displacement as well as distance is zero miles because you ended up in the
same position you started.
In the previous example, your displacement is zero miles because there is no change in your initial and final
positions. In other words, there is no change in your position since you began and ended at home. Let’s consider another
example, this time with a trip ending at a position different from the origin.

Drill:

1. 3.

2.

Time is the measurement of how long an event, or an observable change, takes to occur.
We measure time in units of seconds, s, as it is the SI base unit for time. In a practical sense, such as during a lab, we
measure the passage of time with a stopwatch or a regular clock. We can also determine the time passed for a moving
object using the formula:

Time is a scalar quantity. We understand time to continuously move forward, with no negative direction or equivalent,
and no way to undo what’s already been done in the past. We use time as a measurement of how long an event lasted.
Average Velocity Definition
An object experiencing a change in position has a measurable rate of change known as velocity. Velocity is the
directional rate of change in position.

Speed Versus Velocity

Just as there is a key difference between distance and displacement, the same difference exists for speed and velocity.
Speed is the magnitude of velocity. Speed describes how fast an object moves through space with respect to
time, or how much distance an object covers during some specified time period.
Speed is a scalar quantity, a numerical value without a direction, while velocity is a vector quantity, with both
magnitude and direction.

Speed and Average Velocity Formulas

The simplest formula for average velocity is:

We can calculate the average speed of a moving object using a similar formula:

Both velocity and speed are measured in units of with the most common unit being m/s.
Note that distance traveled is denoted by s.

Example:

1. Let’s say you’re driving a car and traveled a distance of 10.2 miles in 25 minutes. What is your average speed in miles
per hour?

First, we want to convert 25 mins to h:

Next, we want to use the formula for average speed and solve:

Let’s walk through an example of calculating the average velocity using the equation for average velocity.

2. You run 100.1 m to the bus stop, but you drop your notebook at 72 m. Then, you run back to retrieve it in 23 s. Find
your average velocity over the 23-second time interval.

Let’s calculate the velocity using xi = 0 m and xf = 72 m.

Now, what would your average velocity be if you also dropped your pen at your initial position and run back for
it? Say it takes you an additional 18 s to run back to your initial position. Let’s calculate the average velocity of you
running to the bus stop and back to retrieve your notebook and pen.
This time, the total time elapsed is 23 s + 18 s = 41 s. Now, let’s find your average velocity:

Since we only used the endpoints for this calculation, which are both zero, the average velocity is also zero. What
is the average speed? Using the formula for average speed, with a total distance traveled of 200.2 m from running back
and forth between the bus stop, we get:
Distance, Time and Speed Word Problems

Problems involving Time, Distance and Speed are solved based on one simple formula.
Distance = Speed * Time
Which implies →
Speed = Distance / Time
Time = Distance / Speed

Let us take a look at some simple examples of distance, time and speed problems.

Example 1. A boy walks at a speed of 4 kmph. How much time does he take to walk a distance of 20 km?

Solution:
Time = Distance / speed = 20/4 = 5 hours.

Example 2. A cyclist covers a distance of 15 miles in 2 hours. Calculate his speed.

Solution:
Speed = Distance/time = 15/2 = 7.5 miles per hour.

Example 3. A car takes 4 hours to cover a distance, if it travels at a speed of 40 mph. What should be its speed to cover
the
same distance in 1.5 hours?

Solution:
Distance covered = 4*40 = 160 miles
Speed required to cover the same distance in 1.5 hours = 160/1.5 = 106.66 mph

Lesson 7. ACCELERATION

 Velocity describes how position changes; acceleration describes how velocity changes.
 Acceleration is the name we give to any process where the velocity changes.
 Since velocity is a speed and a direction, there are only two ways for you to accelerate: change your speed or
change your direction—or change both.
 If you’re not changing your speed and you’re not changing your direction, then you simply cannot be
accelerating—no matter how fast you’re going. So, a jet moving with a constant velocity at 800 miles per hour along a
straight line has zero acceleration, even though the jet is moving really fast, since the velocity isn’t changing. When the
jet lands and quickly comes to a stop, it will have acceleration since it’s slowing down.
Or, you can think about it this way. In a car you could accelerate by hitting the gas or the brakes, either of which
would cause a change in speed.

Formula:

Example 1.
A neurotic tiger shark starts from rest and speeds up uniformly to 12 meters per second in a time of 3 seconds.
What was the magnitude of the average acceleration of the tiger shark?

WORKSHEET

NAME: ___________________________________________________

Directions: Solve and show your solution.

1. If a car travels 400m in 20 seconds how fast is it going?

2. In a competition, an athlete threw a flying disk 139 meters through the air. While in flight, the disk traveled at an
average
speed of 13.0 m/s. How long did the disk remain in the air?
3. How far can you get away from your little brother with the squirt gun filled with paint if you can travel at 3 m/s and
you
have 15s before he sees you?
4. A car travels along a straight road 100 m east then 50 m west. Find distance and displacement of the car. Show the
graphical representation.
5. Amy runs 2 miles south, then turn around and runs 3 miles north. Find the distance and displacement. Show the
graphical
representation.
6. A car accelerates from rest to 20 m/s in 10 seconds. Determine the car’s acceleration.
7. A car start from rest and achieved a speed of 54 m/s in 3 seconds. Find its acceleration.

Lesson 8. Free Fall

Freefall as the term says, is a body falling freely because of the gravitational pull of our earth.
Imagine a body with velocity (v) is falling freely from a height (h) for time (t) seconds because of gravity (g).
Free fall is independent of the mass of the body. It depends only on the height and the duration the body is flung for.

Concepts to Free Falling Objects Problem Solving

There are a few concepts of free-fall motion that hold paramount importance when using the equations to analyze
free-fall motion. These concepts are as follows:

 A freely falling object experiences an acceleration of 9.8 ms -2. (Here, the negative sign indicates a downward
acceleration or deceleration). Whether clearly stated or not, the value of the acceleration in the kinematic
equations remains 9.8 ms2 for any freely falling object.

 If an object is mistakenly dropped (as opposed to being thrown) from an elevated height, its initial velocity
remains 0 m/s.
 If an object is projected upwards in an exactly vertical direction, it slows down as it rises upward. The point at
which it reaches the peak of its trajectory is the point where the velocity is 0 m/s. This value can be used as one of
the important motion parameters in the kinematic equations; for instance, the final velocity (v f) after traveling to
the peak reaches a value of 0 m/s.
 If an object is projected upwards in an exactly vertical direction, its velocity at which it is projected equals in
magnitude but in a sign opposite to the velocity after it returns to the same height.

In the nutshell, a ball projected with an upward velocity of + 50 m/s will have a downward velocity of - 50 m/s
when it returns to the same height.

Example:
1. What will be the height of the body if it has a mass of 3 kg and after 8 seconds it reaches the ground?

Solution:
Given data:
Height h =?
Time t = 8s

You are acquainted with the concept that free fall is independent of mass. So, using the free-fall formula here:
h = 1/2 gt 2

h = 1/2 * 9.8* (8)2

= 0.5 x 9.8 x 64
h = 313.6 m

2. The cotton ball falls after 4 s and the iron ball falls after 7 s. Determine which object falls with a higher velocity?
v (Velocity of cotton ball) = gt = 9.8 m/s 2 × 4 s = 39.2 m/s
v (Velocity of iron ball) = gt = 9.8 m/s 2 × 7 s = 68.6 m/s

Drill:
Problem 1: Calculate the body height if it has a mass of 2 kg and after 7 seconds it reaches the ground?
Answer:
Given: Height h =?
Time t = 7s

h = 1/2 gt2
h = 0.5 × 9.8 × (7)2
h = 240.1 m