Physics: Grade 1, Semester 1

Matter, Form and Function

Big Idea: For a structure to be sustainable, it must withstand different forces.

PH.1.01 - Students will be able to make measurements precisely and accurately using a variety of
measurement tools. (Week 01 - Week 02)
Concepts:
‣ A. Physics as experimental science
Physics is divided in to two entities: experimental Physics and theoretical Physics.
A theoretical physicist uses mathematics to write proofs for the 'thought experiments' he/she thinks of.
Sometimes completely new types of mathematics are invented to prove the theories. In order to quantify
General Relativity, Einstein had to use a type of mathematical space called Riemann space and the
mathematics associated with Riemann space.

An experimental physicist also has hypotheses and theories, but they devise actual experiments to show
these hypotheses are true (or not).

General Relativity is one example where it is shown true by both mathematics and by experiments. The
latest experiment to show General Relativity is true is the satellite "Gravity Probe B", which orbited the earth
(still is) for a couple of years gathering data on what's called "frame dragging" -- which is a prediction from
General Relativity math that had not been shown by experiment (until now).

Large particle accelerators, like CERN in Europe, allow experimental physicists to do experiments on high-
energy particles, sub-atomic particles, and sub-sub atomic particles.

‣ B. Systems of measurements and standards

The English system of measurement grew out of the creative
way that people measured for themselves. Familiar objects and parts of the
body were used as measuring devices. For example, people measured
shorter distances on the ground with their feet.

They measured longer distances by their paces (a "mile" was a thousand paces). They measured
capacities with common household items such as cups, pails, and baskets. The word gallon
comes from an old name for a pail. Unfortunately, these creative measuring devices allowed
different measurements to be obtained when different people measured the same
items. Eventually, a standard was set so that all measurements represented the same amount for
everyone

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 Length: Capacity:
12 inches (in) = 1 foot (ft)
3 teaspoons (tsp) = 1 tablespoon
3 feet = 1 yard (yd)
(tbsp)
5280 feet = 1 mile (mi)
16 tbsp = 1 cup (c)
Weight: 8 ounces (oz) = 1 c
2 c = 1 pint (pt)
2 pt = 1 quart (qt)
16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb)
4 qt = 1 gallon (gal)
2000 lb = 1 ton

The Metric system of measurement was created about two

hundred years ago by a group of French scientists to simplify measurement.

In the metric system, each of the common kinds of measure -- length, weight, capacity -- has one
basic unit of measure. To measure smaller amounts, divide the basic unit into parts of ten, a
hundred, or a thousand, and so on. To measure larger amounts, multiply the basic unit by ten, a
hundred, or a thousand, and so on.

Length:
Capacity:
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)
1 centimeter (cm) = .01 meter (m) 1 milliliter = .001 liter (l)
1 millimeter (mm) = .001 meter (m)

Weight: Kilo means thousand (1000)

Hecto means hundred (100)
Deca means ten (10)
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
1 milligram (mg) = .001 gram (g)
Deci means one-tenth (1/10)
Centi means one-hundredth (1/100)
Milli means one-thousandth (1/1000)
Most jobs require that you work in either English units or Metric units, but not both. It is necessary, however,
on occasion to convert units from one system to another.

‣C. International system of units

Measurements in the scientific world, and increasingly, in the
nonscientific world are made in SI (Système International) units. The
system was established in order to allow comparison of
measurements made in one country with those made in another. SI
units and their relative values were adopted by an international
association of scientists meeting in Paris in 1960. Table 2.1 lists the
basic SI units and derived units. Notice that metric units are part of this

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system. The system still in common, nonscientific use in the United States is called the English system, even
though England, like most other developed countries, now uses metric units. Anyone using units from both
the English and SI systems needs to be aware of a few simple relationships between the two systems.
These relationships also are given in Table
Property
Basic Relationship
being Derived units
SI Unit to English Unit
measured
length meter (m) kilometer (km) 1 m = 39.37 in.
1 km = 1000 m 1.61 km = 1 mi
centimeter (cm) 2.54 cm = 1 in.
1 cm = 0.01 m
mass kilogram (kg) gram (g) 1 kg = 2.204 lb
1 g = 0.001 kg 453.6 g = 1 lb
volume cubic meter liter (L) 1 L = 1.057 qt
(m3) 1 L = 0.001 m 3
946 mL = 1.0 qt
cubic centimeter (cm3,
cc)
1 cm3 = 0.001 L
milliliter (mL)
1 mL = 1 cm3
Fahrenheit (F)
°F - 32
Celsius (C) °C
temperature Kelvin (K)
K = °C + 273.15 =
1.8
= 5/9 (°F - 32)
calorie (cal)
1 cal = 4.184 J
energy joule (J)
kilocalorie (kcal)
1 kcal = 1000 cal

‣ D. Prefixes of metric units

Prefix Symbol Base unit multiplied by
mega- M 1,000,000, or 106*
kilo- k 1,000, or 103
deci- d 0.1, or 10-1
centi- c 0.01, or 10-2
milli- m 0.001, or 10-3
micro- µ 0.000001, or 10-6
nano- n 0.000000001, or 10-9
pico- p 0.000000000001, or 10-12

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‣ E. From Macro to Nanoscale
Analog Digital
Prefix
value value
-12
p (pico) 10 -
-9
n (nano) 10 -
µ (micro) 10-6 -
-3
m (milli) 10 -
3
k (kilo) 10 210
(1000) (1024)
6
M (mega) 10 220
(1,000,000) (1,048,576)
9
G (Giga) 10 230
(1,000,000,000) (1,073,741,824)
12
T (Tera) 10 240
(1,000,000,000,000) (1,099,511,627,776)

‣ F. Measurement errors
TYPES OF ERRORS IN DEFINED CLASSES
Systematic error (bias) is a permanent deflection in the same direction from the true value. It
can be corrected. Bias and long-term variability are controlled by monitoring measurements
against a check standard over time.
Random error is a short-term scattering of values around a mean value. It cannot be corrected
on an individual measurement
basis. Random errors are expressed by statistical methods.

Absolute Error:
Absolute error is simply the amount of physical error in a measurement.

For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004 m is an absolute error.
Absolute error is positive.
In plain English: The absolute error is the difference between the measured value and the actual
value. (The absolute error will have the same unit label as the measured quantity.)

Relative Error:
Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the accepted
measurement. The relative error expresses the "relative size of the error" of the measurement in
relation to the measurement itself.

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When the accepted or true measurement is known, the relative error is found using

which is considered to be a measure of accuracy.

‣ G. Measurement accuracy vs. precision

Accuracy Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual (true) value.
Precision Precision is how close the measured values are to each other.
Examples of Precision and Accuracy:

Low Accuracy High Accuracy High Accuracy

High Precision Low Precision High Precision

So, if you are playing soccer and you always hit the left goal post instead of scoring, then you are not
accurate, but you are precise!

Bias
When we measure something several times and all values are close, they may all be wrong if there is a "Bias"

Bias is a systematic (built-in) error which makes all measurements wrong by a certain amount.

Examples of Bias

 The scales read "1 kg" when there is nothing on them

 You always measure your height wearing shoes with thick soles.
 A stopwatch that takes half a second to stop when clicked

In each case all measurements are wrong by the same amount. That is bias.

Degree of Accuracy
Accuracy depends on the instrument we are measuring with. But as a general rule:

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‣ H. Dimensional analysis
The dimension of a physical quantity indicates how it relates to one of the seven basic quantities. These
fundamental quantities are:

PH.1.02 - Students will be able to use Newton's 3rd Law to identify the forces of interaction that exist
between pairs of objects (Newtonian pairs) (Week 03 - Week 04)
Concepts:
‣ A. Forces
Type of Force
Description of Force
(and Symbol)
An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another object.
If a person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is an applied force acting
upon the object. The applied force is the force exerted on the desk by the person.
Applied Force

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 Fapp
The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively large
object attracts another object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the
Gravity Force object. All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity that is directed
"downward" towards the center of the earth. The force of gravity on earth is always
equal to the weight of the object as found by the equation:

(also known as Fgrav = m * g

Weight) where g = 9.8 N/kg (on Earth)

and m = mass (in kg)

Fgrav
The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with
another stable object. For example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then the
Normal Force
surface is exerting an upward force upon the book in order to support the weight of
the book. On occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects
that are in contact with each other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall, the
wall pushes horizontally on the person.
Fnorm

The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or
makes an effort to move across it. There are at least two types of friction force -
sliding and static friction. Though it is not always the case, the friction force often
opposes the motion of an object. For example, if a book slides across the surface of a
desk, then the desk exerts a friction force in the opposite direction of its motion.
Friction Force
Friction results from the two surfaces being pressed together closely, causing
intermolecular attractive forces between molecules of different surfaces. As such,
friction depends upon the nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which
they are pressed together. The maximum amount of friction force that a surface can
Ffrict exert upon an object can be calculated using the formula below:

Ffrict = µ • Fnorm

The friction force is discussed in more detail later on this page.

Air Resistance Force The air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts upon objects as they
travel through the air. The force of air resistance is often observed to oppose the
motion of an object. This force will frequently be neglected due to its negligible
magnitude (and due to the fact that it is mathematically difficult to predict its value).
Fair It is most noticeable for objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a

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 downhill skier) or for objects with large surface areas. Air resistance will be
discussed in more detail in Lesson 3.

The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire
Tension Force
when it is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends. The tension force is
directed along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on the opposite
ends of the wire.
Ftens

The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any
Spring Force
object that is attached to it. An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always
acted upon by a force that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium position. For
most springs (specifically, for those that are said to obey "Hooke's Law"), the
magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or
Fspring compression of the spring.

‣ B. Static equilibrium
When forces acting on an object, which is at rest, are balanced, then we say that the object is in a state of
static equilibrium. The resultant of these forces equals zero. That is, the vector sum of the forces adds to zero.

The x|y chart for the 5-kg mass would look as follows:

Since we know that the 5-kg mass is in static equilibrium, we know that the
sum of the forces in each column equals zero. We only need to write the
equation for the y-column since there are no non-zero forces in the x-
column.

y: C + (-mg) = 0
C - 5(9.8) = 0
C = 49 N

‣ C. Dynamic equilibrium
If the two forces act on a body maintains its state of uniform motion under the
influence of the acting forces then this type of equilibrium is called “Dynamic
Equilibrium”.
Examples
A car moving with uniform velocity is the example of Dynamic Equilibrium. The force
of engine acts in forward direction while the force of friction between road and tires acts

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backward. These two forces, being equal and opposite cancel the effect of each other
and the car moves with uniform velocity.
Jumping out of a paratrooper from an aeroplane is another example of dynamic
equilibrium. At a particular velocity the reaction of air on parachute becomes equal to
the weight of the weight of the paratrooper. At this stage, both the forces cancel effect
of each other and the parachute falls down with a uniform velocity.
‣ D. System of forces
A force system is a collection of forces acting at specified locations (may also include couples). Thus the set
of forces shown on any free body diagram make up a force system. Force system is simply a term used to
describe a group of forces.

‣ F. Free body diagram

A free body diagram, sometimes called a force diagram,[1] is a pictorial device, often a rough working
sketch, used by engineers and physicists to analyze the forces and moments acting on a body. The body
itself may consist of multiple components, an automobile
for example, or just a part of a component, a short
section of a beam for example, anything in fact that may
be considered to act as a single body, if only briefly. A
whole series of such diagrams may be necessary to
analyze forces in a complex problem. The free body in a
free body diagram is not free of constraints, it is just that
arrows representing the forces have replaced the
constraints and moments they generate.
Question: Which diagram represents a box in equilibrium?

‣G. Action-Reaction Pairs

According to Newton's third law, for every action force there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction)
reaction force. Forces always come in pairs - known as "action-reaction force pairs." Identifying and
describing action-reaction force pairs is a simple matter of identifying the two interacting objects and making
two statements describing who is pushing on whom and in what direction. For example, consider the
interaction between a baseball bat and a baseball.

‣ H. Point particle
A point particle, also known as a point mass, is an idealized object which has mass but no extent in space.
An object which does have extent in space can be considered to consist of an infinite set of point masses. If
the object neither rotates nor deforms, every point mass making up the object undergoes the same motion
(or lack of motion) that every other point undergoes. Hence, laws of motion that apply to a point mass can be
applied to an object that neither rotates nor deforms. In the case of objects that do rotate and deform, laws of
motion that apply to a point mass can be used to characterize the motion of the center of mass of the object.

PH.1.03 - Students will be able to predict an object's motion based on the forces that are acting on it. (Week

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04 - Week 06)

Concepts:

‣ A. Equilibrium vs. motion vs. change in motion

Balanced Forces

But what exactly is meant by the phrase unbalanced force? What is an unbalanced force? In pursuit of an
answer, we will first consider a physics book at rest on a tabletop. There are two forces acting upon the book.
One force - the Earth's gravitational pull - exerts a downward force. The other force - the push of the table on
the book (sometimes referred to as a normal force) - pushes upward on the book.

Since these two forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they balance each other. The book is
said to be at equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting upon the book and thus the book maintains its
state of motion. When all the forces acting upon an object balance each other, the object will be at
equilibrium; it will not accelerate. (Note: diagrams such as the one above are known as free-body diagrams
and will be discussed in detail in Lesson 2.)

Consider another example involving balanced forces - a person standing on the floor. There are two forces
acting upon the person. The force of gravity exerts a downward force. The floor exerts an upward force.

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Since these two forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they balance each other. The person
is at equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting upon the person and thus the person maintains its state
of motion. (Note: diagrams such as the one above are known as free-body diagrams and will be discussed in
detail in Lesson 2.)

Unbalanced Forces

Now consider a book sliding from left to right across a tabletop. Sometime in the prior history of the book, it
may have been given a shove and set in motion from a rest position. Or perhaps it acquired its motion by
sliding down an incline from an elevated position. Whatever the case, our focus is not upon the history of the
book but rather upon the current situation of a book sliding to the right across a tabletop. The book is in
motion and at the moment there is no one pushing it to the right. (Remember: a force is not needed to keep a
moving object moving to the right.) The forces acting upon the book are shown below.

The force of gravity pulling downward and the force of the table pushing upwards on the book are of equal
magnitude and opposite directions. These two forces balance each other. Yet there is no force present to
balance the force of friction. As the book moves to the right, friction acts to the left to slow the book down.
There is an unbalanced force; and as such, the book changes its state of motion. The book is not at
equilibrium and subsequently accelerates. Unbalanced forces cause accelerations. In this case, the unbalanced

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 force is directed opposite the book's motion and will cause it to slow down. (Note: diagrams such as the one
above are known as free-body diagrams and will be discussed in detail in Lesson 2.)

To determine if the forces acting upon an object are balanced or unbalanced, an analysis must first be
conducted to determine what forces are acting upon the object and in what direction. If two individual forces
are of equal magnitude and opposite direction, then the forces are said to be balanced. An object is said to be
acted upon by an unbalanced force only when there is an individual force that is not being balanced by a
force of equal magnitude and in the opposite direction

‣ C. Net force acting on a free body.

An object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed and
in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

In the statement of Newton's first law, the unbalanced force refers to that force that does not become
completely balanced (or canceled) by the other individual forces. If either all the vertical forces (up and
down) do not cancel each other and/or all horizontal forces do not cancel each other, then an unbalanced force
exists. The existence of an unbalanced force for a given situation can be quickly realized by looking at the
free-body diagram for that situation. Free-body diagrams for three situations are shown below. Note that the
actual magnitudes of the individual forces are indicated on the diagram.

In each of the above situations, there is an unbalanced force. It is commonly said that in each situation there
is a net force acting upon the object. The net force is the vector sum of all the forces that act upon an object.
That is to say, the net force is the sum of all the forces, taking into account the fact that a force is a vector and
two forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction will cancel each other out. At this point, the rules for
summing vectors (such as force vectors) will be kept relatively simple. Observe the following examples of
summing two forces:

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 Observe in the diagram above that a downward vector will provide a partial or full cancellation of an upward
vector. And a leftward vector will provide a partial or full cancellation of a rightward vector. The addition of
force vectors can be done in the same manner in order to determine the net force (i.e., the vector sum of all
the individual forces). Consider the three situations below in which the net force is determined by summing
the individual force vectors that are acting upon the objects.

A Net Force Causes an Acceleration

As mentioned earlier, a net force (i.e., an unbalanced force) causes an acceleration. In a previous unit,
several means of representing accelerated motion (position-time and velocity-time graphs, ticker tape
diagrams, velocity-time data, etc.) were discussed. Combine your understanding of acceleration and the newly
acquired knowledge that a net force causes an acceleration to determine whether or not a net force exists in
the following situations. Click on the button to view the answers

‣ D. Newton's Laws of Motion

Physics classroom
‣ E. Centripetal acceleration

Uniform circular motion is circular motion with a constant orbital speed. It is different to the motion we have
seen above because it is occurring in two dimensions as the object in question moves in a circle. Even though
the speed of the object is constant, the velocity is changing because the direction is changing. Because the
velocity is changing, it must be accelerating.

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As an example of circular motion, imagine you have a rock tied to a string and are whirling it around above
your head in a horizontal plane. If you were to let go of the string, the rock would fly off at a tangent to the
circle - a demonstration of Newton's First Law of Motion. He said that an object would continue in uniform
motion in a straight line unless acted upon by a net force. In the case of our rock, the force making it
accelerate and keeping it within a circular path is the tension in the string and it is always directed back
towards the hand at the centre of the circle. Without that force the rock would travel in a straight line. So, if
the magnitude of the velocity is constant but its direction is changing, the velocity must be changing and it is,
therefore, accelerating. A net force is required to accelerate the rock and as stated above, this force is the
tension in the string. The force needed to keep an object moving in a circle is also called centripetal force and
the acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration.

The same is true of a spacecraft in orbit around the Earth or any object in circular motion - some force is
needed to keep it moving in a circle or accelerate it and that force is directed towards the centre of the circle.
In the case of the spacecraft, it is the gravitational attraction between the Earth and the spacecraft that acts to
maintain the circular motion and keep it in orbit. When a car turns a corner at a constant speed, it is
accelerating because it is changing direction. The force causing the acceleration is the friction between the
types and the road as the driver turns the wheel.

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The diagram on the left allows us to work out the direction of the centripetal acceleration - which must also be
in the direction of the centripetal force. The object is shown moving between two points A and B on a
horizontal circle. Its velocity has changed from v1 to v2. The magnitude of the velocity is always the same, but
the direction has changed. Since velocities are vector quantities we need to use vector mathematics to work
out the average change in velocity. You will see how to do this in the next section of work. In this example,
the direction of the average change in velocity is towards the centre of the circle. This is always the case and
thus true for instantaneous acceleration.

‣ F. Centripetal force

The Centripetal Force Requirement

Uniform circular motion can be described as the motion of an object in a circle at a constant speed. As an
object moves in a circle, it is constantly changing its direction. Because of this direction change, you can be
certain that an object undergoing circular motion is accelerating (even if it is moving at constant speed). And
in accord with Newton's laws of motion, an accelerating object must be acted upon by an unbalanced force.
This unbalanced force is in the same direction as the direction of the acceleration. For objects in uniform
circular motion, the net force and subsequent acceleration is directed inwards. Circular motion requires a net
inward or "centripetal" force.

Without a net centripetal force, an object cannot travel in circular motion. In fact, if the forces are balanced,
then an object in motion continues in motion in a straight line at constant speed. This can be demonstrated by
carrying a tennis ball upon a flat, level board. Once the tennis ball and the board are in motion, they will
continue in motion in the same direction at the same speed unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. This
demonstrates Newton's first law of motion. But if an unbalanced force is applied to the flat board, then the flat
board will accelerate. If the force is continually directed towards a point at the center of the circle, then the
flat board will round the corner in a circular-like path. The ball on the other hand will continue to move in the
same direction since there is no unbalanced force acting upon it. The board will move out from under the
tennis ball. This is illustrated in the animation on the left below.

Now if a block is secured to the board in such a manner that the block applies an unbalanced force to the ball
that is directed towards the center of the circle, then quite another phenomenon will be observed. With the

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block providing a normal force directed inward, the ball can round the corner in a circular-like path. The
block supplies the centripetal force required for circular motion. With the centripetal motion requirement met,
uniform circular motion can occur. This is illustrated in the animation on the right.

‣ G. Inertial reference frame

Frame of reference: When you are standing on the ground, that is your frame of reference. Anything that you
see, watch, or measure will be compared to the reference point of the ground. If I am standing in the back of
a moving truck, the truck is now my frame of reference and everything will be measured compared to it.

PH.1.04 - Students will be able to model the gravitational force on an object near the earth as proportional to
the object's mass, with constant of proportionality g, the gravitational field strength. (Week 07 - Week 08)
Concepts:
‣A. Mass
Newton's first law of motion states "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion
with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force." Objects tend to
"keep on doing what they're doing." In fact, it is the natural tendency of objects to resist changes in their state
of motion. This tendency to resist changes in their state of motion is described as inertia.
Inertia: the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion.

Newton's conception of inertia stood in direct opposition to more popular conceptions about motion. The
dominant thought prior to Newton's day was that it was the natural tendency of objects to come to a rest
position. Moving objects, so it was believed, would eventually stop moving; a force was necessary to keep an
object moving. But if left to itself, a moving object would eventually come to rest and an object at rest would
stay at rest; thus, the idea that dominated people's thinking for nearly 2000 years prior to Newton was that it
was the natural tendency of all objects to assume a rest position.
‣C. Gravitational field
an equation was given for determining the force of gravity (Fgrav) with which an object of mass m was
attracted to the earth

Fgrav = m*g

Now in this unit, a second equation has been introduced for calculating the force of gravity with which an
object is attracted to the earth.

where d represents the distance from the center of the object to the center of the earth.

In the first equation above, g is referred to as the acceleration of gravity. Its value is 9.8 m/s2 on Earth. That is
to say, the acceleration of gravity on the surface of the earth at sea level is 9.8 m/s2. When discussing the
acceleration of gravity, it was mentioned that the value of g is dependent upon location. There are slight
variations in the value of g about earth's surface. These variations result from the varying density of the
geologic structures below each specific surface location. They also result from the fact that the earth is not

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truly spherical; the earth's surface is further from its center at the equator than it is at the poles. This would
result in larger g values at the poles. As one proceeds further from earth's surface - say into a location of orbit
about the earth - the value of g changes still.
The Value of g Depends on Location

To understand why the value of g is so location dependent, we will use the two equations above to derive an
equation for the value of g. First, both expressions for the force of gravity are set equal to each other.

Now observe that the mass of the object - m - is present on both sides of the equal sign. Thus, m can be
canceled from the equation. This leaves us with an equation for the acceleration of gravity.

The above equation demonstrates that the acceleration of gravity is dependent upon the mass of the earth
(approx. 5.98x1024 kg) and the distance (d) that an object is from the center of the earth. If the value 6.38x106
m (a typical earth radius value) is used for the distance from Earth's center, then g will be calculated to be 9.8
m/s2. And of course, the value of g will change as an object is moved further from Earth's center. For
instance, if an object were moved to a location that is two earth-radii from the center of the earth - that is, two
times 6.38x106 m - then a significantly different value of g will be found. As shown below, at twice the
distance from the center of the earth, the value of g becomes 2.45 m/s2.

‣D. Weight

The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively large object attracts another
object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects upon earth experience a force
of gravity that is directed "downward" towards the center of the earth. The force of gravity on earth is always
equal to the weight of the object as found by the equation:

Fgrav = m * g
where g = 9.8 N/kg (on Earth)

and m = mass (in kg)

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‣E. General Law of Gravitation
Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth. Newton's law of universal
gravitation is about the universality of gravity. Newton's place in the Gravity Hall of Fame is not due to his
discovery of gravity, but rather due to his discovery that gravitation is universal. ALL objects attract each
other with a force of gravitational attraction. Gravity is universal. This force of gravitational attraction is
directly dependent upon the masses of both objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
that separates their centers. Newton's conclusion about the magnitude of gravitational forces is summarized
symbolically as

Since the gravitational force is directly proportional to the mass of both interacting objects, more massive
objects will attract each other with a greater gravitational force. So as the mass of either object increases, the
force of gravitational attraction between them also increases. If the mass of one of the objects is doubled, then
the force of gravity between them is doubled. If the mass of one of the objects is tripled, then the force of
gravity between them is tripled. If the mass of both of the objects is doubled, then the force of gravity
between them is quadrupled; and so on.

Since gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance between the two
interacting objects, more separation distance will result in weaker gravitational forces. So as two objects are
separated from each other, the force of gravitational attraction between them also decreases. If the separation
distance between two objects is doubled (increased by a factor of 2), then the force of gravitational attraction
is decreased by a factor of 4 (2 raised to the second power). If the separation distance between any two
objects is tripled (increased by a factor of 3), then the force of gravitational attraction is decreased by a factor
of 9 (3 raised to the second power).

Thinking Proportionally About Newton's Equation

The proportionalities expressed by Newton's universal law of gravitation are represented graphically by the
following illustration. Observe how the force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of the two
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of separation.

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 Another means of representing the proportionalities is to express the relationships in the form of an equation
using a constant of proportionality. This equation is shown below.

The constant of proportionality (G) in the above equation is known as the universal gravitation constant.
The precise value of G was determined experimentally by Henry Cavendish in the century after Newton's
death. (This experiment will be discussed later in Lesson 3.) The value of G is found to be

G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2

The units on G may seem rather odd; nonetheless they are sensible. When the units on G are substituted into
the equation above and multiplied by m1• m2 units and divided by d2 units, the result will be Newtons - the
unit of force.

‣ E. Newton's Second Law in gravitational field

Newton's second law of motion can be formally stated as follows:
The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net
force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows:

a = Fnet / m

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The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown below. The net force is equated to
the product of the mass times the acceleration.

Fnet = m • a

In this entire discussion, the emphasis has been on the net force. The acceleration is directly
proportional to the net force; the net force equals mass times acceleration; the acceleration in
the same direction as the net force; an acceleration is produced by a net force. The NET
FORCE. It is important to remember this distinction. Do not use the value of merely "any
'ole force" in the above equation. It is the net force that is related to acceleration. As
discussed in an earlier lesson, the net force is the vector sum of all the forces. If all the
individual forces acting upon an object are known, then the net force can be determined. If
necessary, review this principle by returning to the practice questions in Lesson 2.

Consistent with the above equation, a unit of force is equal to a unit of mass times a unit of acceleration. By
substituting standard metric units for force, mass, and acceleration into the above equation, the following unit
equivalency can be written.

1 Newton = 1 kg • m/s2

The definition of the standard metric unit of force is stated by the above equation. One Newton is defined as
the amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s/s.

‣ F. Free Fall
It was learned in the previous part of this lesson that a free-falling object is an object that is falling under the
sole influence of gravity. A free-falling object has an acceleration of 9.8 m/s/s, downward (on Earth). This
numerical value for the acceleration of a free-falling object is such an important value that it is given a special
name. It is known as the acceleration of gravity - the acceleration for any object moving under the sole
influence of gravity. A matter of fact, this quantity known as the acceleration of gravity is such an important
quantity that physicists have a special symbol to denote it - the symbol g. The numerical value for the
acceleration of gravity is most accurately known as 9.8 m/s/s. There are slight variations in this numerical
value (to the second decimal place) that are dependent primarily upon on altitude. We will occasionally use
the approximated value of 10 m/s/s in The Physics Classroom Tutorial in order to reduce the complexity of
the many mathematical tasks that we will perform with this number. By so doing, we will be able to better
focus on the conceptual nature of physics without too much of a sacrifice in numerical accuracy.
‣ G. Apparent weight

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PH.1.05 - Students will be able to determine the conditions for stability of extended rigid bodies by
considering translational and rotational equilibrium (Week 09 - Week 10)

Concepts:
‣ A. Center of mass
The center of mass is the point where all of the mass of the object is concentrated. When an object is
supported at its center of mass there is no net torque acting on the body and it will remain in static
equilibrium. An easy way to determine the location of the center of mass of a rigid pole is to support the pole
horizontally on one finger from each hand. Gently slide your fingers together. When your fingers meet, you
will be at the center of mass at which time you can easily hold up the pole with only one finger as long as it
can withstand the entire weight of the pole. Try it with a bat or a broom. If the object is uniform, for example
a meter stick, the center of mass will be at the exact geometric center; if the object is irregular in shape the
center of mass will be closer to the heavier end.

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Another method of finding the center of mass of an planar object is through the use of a plumb line. Suspend
the mass from each vertex and trace the plumb line's location. Since the center of mass will fall below the
suspension point (in order to reduce any torques from the object's weight) the center of mass will be at the
intersection of all of the plumb lines.

If the center of mass is a point within the object's actual structure, then the object can be balanced at that
point. The object will also be free to rotate about that point. Consider a uniform rectangular plane. Its center
of mass would be at its geometric center. When supported at that point, the mass would remain at equilibrium
or would spin uniformly. As the rectangle spins, you can mentally note the location of its center of mass - the
only fixed, stationary point in the animation. (press F5 to refresh)
If a rigid body is projected through the air, its center of mass will follow a natural parabolic arc. For example,
consider a baseball bat slung into the air after striking the baseball. Although it appears to have a complicated
motion if you watch it rotate, the trajectory will be parabolic if you track its center of mass. The same for a
baton tossed up into the air by a majorette. Although its ends are spinning rapidly as it climbs and falls in the
air, its path is that of a simple projectile thrown straight upwards. Another example is from one from ballet.
The following diagram and commentary of the physics involved when a ballerina completes a grande jete is
courtesy. In most cases the center of mass of an object is a point with physical mass, in other instances it can
be located at a position that has no "physical mass"; for example, the center of a ring (a donut) or the center of
mass of a boomerang. If the object is irregular in shape, the center of mass is always located closer to the
more massive end. However, as long as a "plumb line" dropped from the center of mass falls within the area
of an object's base of support, an object will not topple - for example:

 the cantilevered balconys of Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater,

 the leaning tower of Pisa ,
 a truck parked on a hillside,
 a race car moving through a banked curve,
 an acrobatic troop's pyramid act in the circus,

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  a professional unicyclist sensing how to lean as he accommodates the various dynamically-changing
weight vectors in the system to keep his center of mass above the wheel's base of support, or simply
 a person bending over to pick up an object from the floor.

The degree of stability in an object's position depends on how must its center of gravity will be changed if it is
moved. Consider the three right circular cones shown below. The left cone is unstable since its center of
gravity is lowered if the cone is tilted in any direction. The center cone is stable since work must be done to
raise the center or gravity if the cone is to be tipped. The right cone is neutral since rolling the cone along the
surface of the table does not raise or lower its center of gravity.

The terms "center of mass" and "center of gravity" are interchangeable as long as their is
no discernible difference in the pull of gravity from one part of the object to another.

Many types of art work, magic stunts, and toys use the fact that an object will return to stable equilibrium as
long as the system's center of gravity passes within the base of support or below the pivot point. Initially,
consider Alexander Calder's kinetic sculptures, or mobiles. At first Calder incorporated motors to keep his
sculptures moving, but eventually he figured out ways to allow the careful balancing of the parts to result in
their being moved simply by the wind.

When built, Spiral was "the largest mobile in Europe

because of its 10 meter height. This piece is made of
black steel and weighs two tons. Each arrow is 7m
long. The mobile presents a harmonious figure as the
five balanced arms are put into motion with the
slightest gust of wind."

"Spiral" (1958) Alexander Calder

UNESCO Art Gallery

"Another mobile, 'Steel Fish'

(1934), involves an intricate system
of weights and balances, and
depends on the strength of the wind
to arrange or rearrange its
composition."

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 But perhaps Calder's most famous
mobile is the one on display in the
National Gallery of Art in
Washington, DC.

The stability of balancing toys is built in by constructing them so that their center of gravity always remains
below the pivot point. If the toys are tipped in any direction the center of gravity is raised. This results in
gravity exerting a restoring force (actually a torque) which pulls it back towards an upright position.

knight win or lose light in the dark road racer

As long as the center of gravity is below the pivot point, an object will remain in stable
equilibrium, even when pushed "off -center." The center of gravity of this toy called "Billy, the Balancing
Man" was found by tying a plumb line to one side of the toy, and then allowing it to hang in equilibrium. The
center of gravity is marked with an "x," a distance equaling 2.1 centimeters below the pivot point. Note two
features:
(1) the symmetry of the toy dictates that its center of gravity must lie on a line along the symmetry axis, that
is on a line along the body of man; and
(2) like the triangular figures shown above, the center of gravity must lie somewhere along the string.
Watch these videos of the toy as it oscillates about its pivot point either in a mode parallel or perpendicular to
the plane of the toy. Note that the toy always remains in stable equilibrium. Videos courtesy of Physics Fun at
Clemson University.

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A common magic trick using the properties of center of gravity is shown below. The two forks are balanced
on the edge of the glass by a toothpick.

"When you try to balance an object, if the point of support, the pivot point, is not at the
center of gravity then the object will rotate either clockwise or anti-clockwise depending
on which side has more torque. However, if the pivot point is on the same vertical line as
the center of gravity, then the object, no matter what shape, is going to balance. It will be
stable if the center of gravity lies below the pivot point. If the center of gravity is above the
pivot point, even a slight disturbance will pull it off balance. In our case if you want to
have a stable situation, the center of gravity of this assembly has to be below the pivot
point. The pivot point is where the toothpick rests on the rim of the glass. The actual center
of gravity must lie in the empty space between the two forks and below the pivot point to
achieve stability."

Now try flying a toy bird on the tip of your finger!

Printed on October 15, 2015

Printed on October 15, 2015