Haider Ali

Uncertainties and
Calibration
 2
Measurement Methods
• Direct method

• Indirect method
 3
Measuring Instruments
• Measuring instruments are measuring devices that
transform the measured quantity into an information,
either analog or digital.
• The functions of the measuring instruments are
1. Indicating function
2. Recording function
3. Controlling function

• The applications of the measuring instruments are

1. Monitoring of processes and operations
2. Control of process
3. Experimental engineering analysis
 4
Measurement Terms
• Resolution
It is the minimum value that can be measured when the
instrument is gradually increased from non-zero value.
• Repeatability
The degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured under same conditions.
• Reproducibility
The degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured under different conditions.
 5
Measurement Terms
• Gaging
It is not measurement, but a form of inspection and sorting.
• Tolerance
The two extremes within which an actual part dimension
must lie.
• Calibration
It is the process of determining the values of the quantity
being measured corresponding to a pre-established arbitrary
scale.
 6
Advantages of Calibration
• Optimizes resources.
• Assures consistency.
• Ensures measurements (and perhaps products) are
compatible with those made elsewhere.
• Eliminate or reduce bias in the user's measurement
system relative to the reference base.
 7
Measurement Terms
• Accuracy:
It is the agreement between a measured value and the true
value.
• Precision:
It is also called reproducibility or repeatability, the degree to
which further measurements or calculations show the same
or similar results.
• Instrument precision:
It is usually associated with the number of digits displayed on
the output, i.e., its resolution.
 8
Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy indicates proximity to the true value, precision to
the repeatability or reproducibility of the measurement
 9
Accuracy and Precision

High accuracy, but High precision, but

low precision low accuracy
 10
Errors in Precision and Accuracy
Accuracy Errors Precision Errors

Accuracy Error is Inaccuracy or Precision error is the random

Uncertainty. error.

Accuracy error is the measured Precision error is the reading

value minus the true value. minus the average of readings.
 11
Types of Errors
• Systematic Errors
• Random Errors
 12
Types of Errors
• Systematic Errors
They are consistent, repeatable errors. For example, suppose the first
two millimeters of a ruler are worn off, and the user is not aware of it.
Everything he or she measures will be too short by two millimeters – a
systematic error.
• Calibration Errors: due to nonlinearity or errors in the calibration
method.
• Loading or Intrusion Errors: the sensor may actually change the very
thing it is trying to measure.
• Spatial Errors: arise when a quantity varies in space, but a
measurement is taken only at one location (e.g. temperature in a room -
usually the top of a room is warmer than the bottom).
• Human Errors: arise if a person consistently reads a scale on the low
side, for example.
• Defective Equipment Errors: arise if the instrument consistently reads
too high or too low due to some internal problem or damage.
 13
Types of Errors
• Random Errors
They are unrepeatable, inconsistent errors, resulting in scatter in the
output data.
The random error of one data point is defined as the reading minus
the average of readings.
 14
Other Sources of Errors
There are many other errors, which all have technical names,
as defined here:
• Zero Error
The instrument does not read zero when the input is zero.
Zero error is a type of bias error that offsets all measurements
taken by the instrument, but can usually be corrected by some
kind of zero offset adjustment.

• Linearity Error
The output deviates from the calibrated linear relationship
between the input and the output. Linearity error is a type of
bias error, but unlike zero error, the degree of error varies with
the magnitude of the reading.
 15
Other Sources of Errors
• Sensitivity Error
The slope of the output vs. input curve is not calibrated
exactly in the first place. Since this affects all readings by the
instrument, this is a type of systematic or bias error.

• Resolution Error
The output precision is limited to discrete steps (e.g., if one
reads to the nearest millimeter on a ruler, the resolution error
is around +/- 1 mm). Resolution error is a type of random or
precision error.
 16
Other Sources of Errors
• Hysteresis Error
The output is different, depending on whether the input is
increasing or decreasing at the time of measurement. This is a
separate error from instrument repeatability error.

• Instrument Repeatability Error

The instrument gives a different output, when the input
returns to the same value. The reasons for the differences and
the procedure to get to that value are usually random, so
instrument repeatability error is a type of random error.
 17
Other Sources of Errors
• Drift Error
The output changes (drifts) from its correct value, even though
the input remains constant. Drift error can often be seen in the
zero reading, which may fluctuate randomly due to electrical
noise and other random causes, or it can drift higher or lower
(zero drift) due to nonrandom causes, such as a slow increase in
air temperature in the room. Thus, drift error can be either
random or systematic.

• Parallax
This error can occur whenever there is some distance between
the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain a
measurement. If the observer's eye is not squarely aligned with
the pointer and scale, the reading may be too high or low (some
analog meters have mirrors to help with this alignment).
 18
Other Sources of Errors
• Environmental factors
Be aware of errors introduced by your immediate working
environment. You may need to take account for or protect your
experiment from vibrations, drafts, changes in temperature,
electronic noise or other effects from nearby apparatus.

• Reading Error
Describes such factors as parallax, interpolation, or optical
resolution.

• Loading Error
Results from the change of the measurement instrument when
it is being used.
 19
Other Sources of Errors
• Errors due to Vibrations.
• Metallurgical Effects.
• Errors due to Deflection.
• Errors due to Looseness.
• Errors due to Wear in Gauges.
• Errors due to Poor Contact.