Industrial Instrumentation

(Part-1: Measurement Systems)

Prepared by
Dr.Subir Das

Indian Institute of Engineering Science & Technology, Shibpur

Howrah-71103
 Objective
 Different parameters of measurement
 Static & Dynamic Characteristics
 System Transfer Function
 Source of Errors
 Different Measuring Instruments

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 Method of Measurement
 Direct Method
 With direct measurements, measuring instruments such as
Vernier calipers, micrometers, and coordinate measuring
machines are used to measure the dimensions of the target
directly. These measurements are also known as absolute
measurements.
 Indirect Method
 In this method, the unknown quantity is directly compared
against a standard. The result is expressed as numerical number
and a unit.

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 Classification of Measuring Instruments
 Absolute Instruments
 These instruments gives the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of the instrument.
 Example: Galvanometer

 Secondary Instruments
 These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be
measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument. These instruments
are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or secondary instrument
which is already calibrated against an absolute instrument.

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 Source of Errors
 Measurement Error
 Is the difference between the true value of the size and the
value found by measurement.
Errors pertains to measurement not to an instrument.
Error = True Size – Actual Size
True Size: is the theoretical size obtained through measurement. This type of
size is free from any type of error. It is the guide for measuring many properties
such as accuracy of an instrument.
Actual Size: is a measured size with permissible error. It refers to the
minimum acceptable size of a sample.

There are two general categories of error: systematic (or bias) errors and
random (or precision) errors.

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 Source of Errors
 Systematic errors (also called bias errors)
 They are consistent, repeatable errors.
 For example, suppose the first two millimeters of a ruler are covered and the
user is not aware of it. So, Everything he or she measures will be too short by two
millimeters – a systematic error.

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 Source of Errors
 Sources of Systematic Error
 Calibration Errors:
 Due to nonlinearity or errors in the calibration method.

 Loading or Intrusion Errors:

 The sensor output may actually change due to the presence of interfaced load.

 Spatial Errors:

 Arise when a quantity varies in space, but a measurement is taken only at one location (e.g. temperature in a room -

usually the top of a room is warmer than the bottom).

 Human Errors:

 Arise if a person consistently reads a scale on the low side, for example.

 Defective Equipment Errors:

 Arise if the instrument consistently reads too high or too low due to some internal problem or damage.

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 Source of Errors
 Random Error
 They are unrepeatable, inconsistent errors, resulting in scatter in the output data.
 The random error of one data point is defined as the reading minus the average of
readings.

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 Source of Errors
 Other Sources of Error
 There are many other errors, which all have technical names, as defined here:
 Zero Error: The instrument does not read zero when the input is zero. Zero
error is a type of bias error that offsets all measurements taken by the instrument,
but can usually be corrected by some kind of zero offset adjustment.
 Linearity Error: The output deviates from the calibrated linear relationship
between the input and the output. Linearity error is a type of bias error, but unlike
zero error, the degree of error varies with the magnitude of the reading.

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 Source of Errors
 Sensitivity Error: The slope of the output vs. input curve is not
calibrated exactly in the first place. Since this affects all readings by the
instrument, this is a type of systematic or bias error.
 Resolution Error: The output precision is limited to discrete steps
(e.g., if one reads to the nearest millimeter on a ruler, the resolution error
is around ±1mm.)
The resolution error is a type of random error or precision error
 Reading Error: describes such factors as parallax, interpolation, or
optical resolution.

 Loading Error: results from the change of the measurement

instrument when it is being used.
 Static Error and Static Correction

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 Measurement Parameters
 Settling (response) time (s)
 Time required for a device to respond after giving a step input signal within a rated
accuracy
 Rise time (s)
 Time required for a device to change its output from 10% to 90% of its maximum value
 Sensitivity (dV/dxi )
 The rate of change of output for the change of input signal.
 Hysteresis
 Permanent deviation of the output for giving the same input
 Offset voltage (mV )
 Output voltage obtained for zero (reference) input conditions
 Temperature coefficient (ppm K^-1)
 The rate of change of reading as a function of temperature

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 Continued…
 Repeatability (% )
 Measure of agreement between successive measurement (same conditions &
in a short time interval)
 Reproducibility (% )
 Measure of agreement between successive measurement (changed
conditions & in a long time interval)
 Range
 min and max values of input or output variables
 Span
 maximum variation of input or output
 Accuracy
 It is a measure of closeness to the true value
 Precision
 It is a measure of closeness between two or
more measurements to each other.
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 Example of Accuracy & Precision

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 Continued…
 Resolution
 The resolution (or discrimination) is the minimal change of the input necessary to
produce a detectable change at the output.
 When the input start from zero and made some detectable change at output, then it is
called the threshold.
 When the input signal varies rapidly, the noise floor of the sensor determines the
resolution.

 Example: Determine the resolution of a voltmeter which has a range readout scale with 100
divisions and a full-scale reading of 100 V. If one tenth of a scale division can be read
certainty, determine the resolution of the voltmeter.
 Solution:
100 scale division = 100V
One scale division = 100 /100 = 1V
Resolution = 1 x 1/10 = 0.1 V

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 Continued…
 Linearity
 The linearity describes the closeness between the calibration curve and a specified
straight line.
 Independent Linearity. The straight line is defined by the least squares criterion. With
this system the maximal positive error and the minimal negative error are equal.
 Zero-Based Linearity. The straight line is also defined by the least squares criterion
but with the additional restriction of passing through zero.
 Terminal-Based Linearity. The straight line is defined by the output corresponding to
the lower input and the theoretical output when the higher input is applied.
 End-Points Linearity. The straight line is defined by the real output when the input is
the minimum of the measurement range and the output when the input is the
maximum (FSO).
 Theoretical Linearity. The straight line is defined by the theoretical predictions when
designing the sensor.

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 Continued…

Different straight lines used as a reference to define linearity: (a) independent

linearity (least squares method); (b) zero-based linearity (least squares adjusted to zero);
(c) terminal-based linearity; (d ) end-points-defined linearity; (e) theoretical linearity.
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 Problems of Measurement

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  A moving coil ammeter has a uniform scale with 50 divisions and gives a full-scale
reading of 5 A. The instrument can read up to 4th of a scale division with a fair degree
of certainty. Determine the resolution of the instrument in mA.

 The measurand value of a resistance is 10.25 Ω, whereas its value is 10.22 Ω. Determine the
absolute error of the measurement.

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  A 0-25 A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 percent of
full scale reading. The current measured by this instrument is
10 A. Determine the limiting error in percentage and range
of error.

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  A 0-250 V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 2% of full-
scale reading. The voltage measured by the voltmeter is 150
volts. Determine the limiting error in percentage

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