MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION

1
Measurement
• Measurement is defined as an act or result of comparison between
the quantity and a predefined standard.
• Measurement can be done in two ways :
• Direct methods
• Indirect methods

2
Why Measurements?
• Monitoring of Processes and Operations.
• Control of Processes and Operations.
• Experimental Engineering Analysis.

3
Elements of a Measurement System
• Primary Sensing Element:
The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary
sensing element of a measurement system, usually transducers.
• Variable Conversion Element:
The output of the transducers are usually electrical signals. It has to be
converted into some other suitable form for the next stage to accept the input
signal. E.g. ADC.
• Data Processing Element:
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to
the personnel handling the instrument like pointers in analog meters and
display in digital meters.
4
Continuous Discharge Furnace

5
Details
• Temperature Range • Combustion system
• Furnace Design Temperature : 800°C • Type of burner : High velocity gas burner
• Max. Charge temperature : 750°C • Number of burners : 48 Nos.
• Total firing rate : 550 Kgs/hr
• Rate of heating : 35°C to 200°C
• Number of firing zones :4
• Temperature Uniformity at soaking : +/-
• Fuel Control : Mass flow control system
10°C
• Fuel : LPG • Instruments:
• Temperature control : 4 zones PID control
• Furnace Chamber Dimensions • Temperature recorder: 1 No (6 point recorder)
• Wall to Wall width : 3850mm • Fuel gas meter : 1 No
• Inside Length (front door to back door): • Flame monitoring unit (UV Sensor): 1 No for each
16000 mm burner
• Inside chamber height (from top of Roller to • Roller conveyor speed control: Through VFD
roof): 900 mm • Burner firing : By spark plug with H.T.
transformer
• Burner management system: Through Burner
Sequence controller
6
Control Panel of Continuous Discharge
Furnace

7
Control Panel of Continuous Discharge
Furnace

8
9
ERRORS AND ITS
CLASSIFICATIONS

10
What’s an Error?
• A measure of the estimated difference between the observed or
calculated value of a quantity and its true value.
• True value
• The true value of quantity to be measured may be defined as the average of an infinite
number of measured values when the average deviation due to the various contributing
factors tends to zero.
• Measured value
• It is the value that is measured by the meter.

11
Limiting errors
• In most instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain
percentage of full-scale reading (FSV/FSD/FSR), usually denoted as
%Guaranteed accuracy. Components are guaranteed to be within a
certain percentage of the rated value.
• The limits of these deviations from the specified value are defined as
Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors.
Aa = As ± δA ,
Where Aa is the actual value ,
As is the nominal value and
δA is the limiting error.

12
Relative limiting error
• The relative (fractional) error is defined as the ratio of the error to the
specified (nominal) magnitude of a quantity

Where
As is the nominal value and
δA is the limiting error.

13
Absolute error
• If a resistor is known to have a 500Ω with a possible error of ±50 Ω ,
then ±50 Ω is the absolute error .
• Its called as absolute error as it is expressed as an absolute quantity
and not as a percentage of 500 Ω.

14
Relative and absolute errors:

15
Solved example

16
Types of error

17
Gross errors
• This error covers the human mistakes while measuring or noting
down the readings .
• Eg. 23.12V could be noted down as 23.21V.
• Gross error could be avoided by taking multiple readings by more
than one observer.

18
Systematic errors
These errors are of three types :
• Instrumental errors
• Environmental errors
• Observational errors.

19
Instrumental Errors
• Errors due to the inherent shortcoming of instruments.
viz. due to calibration, construction or operation of the instruments comes
under this category.
• Errors occur due to misuse of instruments.
Eg. failure to adjust zero of instruments, poor initial adjustments, Using leads of
too high resistance etc.
• Errors might also occur due to loading.
Eg. A well calibrated voltmeter when connected across a high resistance circuit
may give a misleading voltage.

20
Environmental errors
• These errors are those that are derived from the environment in
which the instrument is used.
• They most often include temperature, but may also include vibration, shock,
altitude, chemical exposure, and other factors.

21
Observational Errors
• Errors that occur while observing the reading are observational
errors. Most common example is Parallax error.
• Since parallax error occur on account of pointer and the scale not
being in the same plane, We can eliminate this by having pointer and
the scale in the same plane.

22
Parallax error

23
Random errors
• The errors caused by the happenings or disturbances around the
instrument which doesn’t comes under systematic errors are lumped
together as residual or random errors .
• Mathematical laws or "Probability'' can be applied for the study of random
errors. There is no other way as the random errors are unknown and only
statistical study can lead us to the best approximation of the true value of the
quantity under study

24
Measurement error combinations
• When a quantity is calculated from measurements made on two or
more instruments, the errors due to instrument inaccuracy combines
and the resulting error is larger than the error in any one instrument.
• When a quantity is determined as the sum of two measurements, the total
error is the sum of absolute errors in each measurement.

25
Measurement error combinations (cont.):
• When a calculated quantity is the product of two or more quantities, the
percentage error is the sum of percentage errors in each quantity.

26
Measurement error combinations (cont.):

27
Solved example:

28
Solved example (cont.):

29
Solved example (cont.):

30
Solved example (cont.):

31
Measuring Instruments
• Classification based on principle of operation or measurement:
• Analog
• Digital

32
Analog Instruments

33
Analog Instruments
• The output or display is a continuous function of time and bears a
constant relation to its input.
• The physicals quantity like voltage, current, power and energy are
measured through the analog instruments.
• Most of the analog instruments use pointer or dial for indicating the
magnitude of the measured quantity.

34
Classification of Analog Instruments
• Analog instruments can be classified on the basis of:
• Application
• Principles of Operation

35
Classification of Analog Instruments -
Application

Analog
instruments

Indicating Recording Integrating

36
Classification of Analog Instruments –
Application (cont.):
• Indicating Instruments
• Indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured.
• They generally make use of a dial and a pointer for this purpose.
• Example:
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• RPM meter

37
Classification of Analog Instruments –
Application (cont.):
• Recording Instruments
• Give a continuous record of the quantity being measured over a specified
period.
• The variations of the quantity being measured are recorded by a pen
• The pen is attached to the moving system of the instrument
• The moving system is operated by the quantity being measured on a sheet of
paper carried by a rotating drum.
• Example:
• Recording voltmeter in a substation
• Temperature recorder
• Seismographs

38
Classification of Analog Instruments –
Application (cont.):
• Integrating Instruments
• Totalize events over a specified period of time
• The summation, which they give is the product of time and an electrical
quantity.
• Examples:
• Ampere hour
• Watt hour (energy) meters

39
Classification of Analog Instruments -
Principles of Operation
• The instruments can also be classified according to their principle of
operation into:
• Magnetic effect
• Heating effect
• Electrostatic effect
• Electromagnetic effect
• Hall effect

40
Magnetic effect
• Magnetic effects can be classified into:
• Attraction
• Repulsion
• Force between a Current Carrying Coil and Permanent Magnet
• Force between Two Current Carrying Conductors

41
Magnetic effect (cont.):
• Attraction
• Consider a current carrying coil. It produces an imaginary bar magnet. When a
piece of soft iron which has not been previously magnetized is brought near the
end of the coil, it will be attracted by the coil.
• Therefore, if we pivot the soft iron on a spindle between two bearings and a coil
is mounted near it, the iron piece will swing into the coil when the latter is
carrying current.
• The effect is utilized in the attraction type moving iron instruments.
• Repulsion
• If we have two pieces of soft iron placed near the coil, the two will be similarly
magnetized and there will be force of repulsion between them.
• This effect is utilized in repulsion type moving iron instruments.
42
Magnetic effect (cont.):
• Force between a Current Carrying Coil and Permanent Magnet
• Consider the coil. It produces an imaginary bar magnet when carrying
current. When a permanent magnet is brought near it, there will be either a
force of attraction or repulsion.
• If the coil is mounted on a spindle between bearings, there will be a
movement of the coil.
• This effect is utilized in permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) instruments.

43
Magnetic effect (cont.):
• Force between Two Current Carrying Conductors
• Consider two current carrying coils. For the directions of the currents shown,
the two produce unlike poles near each other and thus there is force of
attraction and if one of the coils is movable and the other is fixed, there will
be a motion of the movable coil.
• This effect is utilized in the dynamometer type of instruments.

44
Heating Effect

• The current to be measured is passed through a small element which

heats it. The temperature rise is converted to an EMF by the
thermocouple attached to an element.
• A thermocouple consists of lengths of two dissimilar electric
conductors joined at ends to form a closed loop. If the junctions of
the two dissimilar metals are maintained at different temperatures, a
current flows through the closed loop.
• This current can be measured and is indicative of the r.m.s. value of
the current flowing through the heater element.

45
Electrostatic Effect
• The electrostatic type instrument use static electrical field to produce
the deflecting torque.
• When two plates are charged, there is a force exerted between them.
This force (attraction or repulsion or both) is used to move one of the
plates.
• The instruments working on this principle are called as electrostatic
instruments.
• Used for the measurement of high voltages.

46
Electromagnetic (Induction) Effect
• When a non-magnetic conducting pivoted disc or a drum is placed in
a magnetic field produced by a system of electromagnets excited by
alternating currents, an EMF is induced in the disc or drum.
• If a closed path is provided, the EMF forces a current to flow in the
disc or drum.
• The force produced by the interaction of induced currents and the
alternating magnetic fields makes the disc move.
• The induction effect is mainly utilized for a.c. energy meters.

47
Hall Effect
• If a strip of conducting material carries
current in the presence of a transverse
magnetic field, an EMF is produced
between two edges of conductor.
• The magnitude of the voltage depends
upon the current, flux density and a
property of conductor called "Hall Effect
Coefficient”
• EMF may be measured after amplification.
Hall effect elements are extensively used
in magnetic measurements.
• They can also be used for sensing of
current.

48
49
Operating forces of an instrument
• Three types of forces are needed for the satisfactory operation of any
indicating instrument. These are:
• Deflecting force
• Controlling force
• Damping force

50
Deflecting Force
• The deflecting force is required for moving the pointer from its zero
position. The system producing the deflecting force is called
''Deflecting System'' or "Moving System''.
• Zero position - position where the pointer is in absence of an input
• The deflecting system of an instrument converts the electric current
or potential into a mechanical force called deflecting force.
• The deflecting system thus acts as the prime mover responsible for
deflection of the pointer.

51
Controlling Force
• Controlling system produces a force that produces the deflection in the pointer
proportional to the input magnitude.
• The system producing a controlling force is called a “Controlling System”.
• The functions of the controlling system are:
• Produce a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force at the steady (final) position
to make the deflection of the pointer unique for a particular magnitude of input.
• In the absence of a controlling system, the pointer will shoot (swing) beyond the final steady position
for any magnitude of current and thus the deflection will be indefinite.
• To bring back the moving system back to zero when the factor causing the deflection is
removed.
• In the absence of a controlling system, the pointer will not come back to zero when current is
removed.
• Controlling force is usually provided by springs.
52
Types of Controlling Force
• There are two types of control systems which are used
• Spring control
• Gravity control

Controlling
Force

Gravity Spring
Control Control
53
Spring Control
• Hair spring made of phosphobronze provides a restoring torque
directly proportional to the angle of deflection () when it twists.
• Flat spiral springs are used in almost all indicating instruments as the
space required by these springs is less than for other types.

• where t is the thickness of the spring

• b is the width of the spring.

54
Spring Control (cont.):
• Characteristics of the spring:
• Non-magnetic
• Resistance to fatigue
• Low specific resistance
• Low temperature coefficient

55
Spring Control (cont.):
• For a flat spiral spring, the controlling torque develop by deflection is
Tc =
E = Young's modulus of spring material
b =width of spring
T = thickness of spring
L = length of spring
= angular deflection
E, b, t, l are constant for a particular spring.
Tc = K where K is constant called ''spring constant" or control constant or "torsion
constant" or ''restoring constant";
• Thus, the controlling torque is proportional to deflection.
56
Gravity Control
• Weights are used to balance the motion of pointer
• The position of the weight is adjustable. This weight produces a
controlling torque due to gravity.

57
Gravity Control (cont.)
• Suppose the system deflects through an
angle ϴ.
• The weight acts at a distance 𝑙 from the
center, the component of weight trying to
restore the pointer back to zero position is
• Therefore, controlling torque is:

• Thus, the controlling torque is proportional

to sine of angle of deflection of the moving
system.
58
Gravity Control (cont.)
• Advantages of gravity over spring control
• Cheap
• Not affected by temperature
• Not susceptible to fatigue with time
• Disadvantages of gravity control
• Cramped scale (non linear)
• Instrument needs to be vertical

59
Damping Force
• Both the deflecting system and the controlling system act with inertial
forces, thereby there is always an overshoot from the desired value.
• It should come to rest at a position where the deflecting force is
balanced by the controlling force.
• Damping forces are employed to provide a damping effect on this
oscillation to settle the pointer much faster, and an equilibrium is
achieved smoothly.

60
Damping Force (cont.):
• Damping torque in an instrument can be produced by using
• Air friction damping
• Fluid friction damping
• Eddy current damping

Damping
System

Fluid friction Eddy current

Air Damping
damping damping

61
Damping Force (cont.):

Air damping Fluid friction damping Eddy current damping

62
Air friction damping
• It consists of a light aluminium piston
attached to the moving system of
instrument.
• This piston is placed in a chamber which
is closed at one end.
• The chamber has a small opening. The
cross section of the chamber may be
rectangular or circular.
• Amount of damping of the oscillation of
pointer depends upon the compression
and suction action of the light aluminium
piston on the air enclosed in the
chamber.
63
Fluid Friction damping
• This is form of damping is similar
to air friction damping. Oil is used
in the place of air.
• A disc is attached to the moving
system, this disc dips into an oil pot
and completely submerged in oil.
• When the moving system moves,
the disc moves in oil and a
frictional drag is produced. This
frictional drag always opposes the
motion.
64
Eddy current damping
• When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an emf
is induced in it and if a closed path is provided, a
current (known as eddy current) flows.
• This current interacts with the magnetic field to
produce an electromagnetic torque which opposes
the motion.
• This torque is proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field and the current produced.
• The current is proportional to emf which in turn is
proportional to velocity of the conductor.
• Thus if the strength of the magnetic field is, constant
(if it is produced by a permanent magnet), the
torque is proportional to velocity of the conductor.
• They cannot be used in places where magnetic field
affects the system like moving iron and
dynamometer.

65
Damping Systems

• The damping torque should be of such a magnitude that the pointer

quickly comes to its final steady position, without overshooting.
• The damping systems include:
• Under damped
• Over damped
• Critically damped

66
Damping Systems (Cont.)
• If the instrument is underdamped, the
moving system will oscillate about the
final steady position with a decreasing
amplitude and will take some time
before it comes to rest.
• When the moving system moves rapidly
but smoothly to its final steady position
the instrument is said to be critically
damped or dead beat.
• If the damping torque is more than
what is required for critical damping,
the instrument is said to be
overdamped.
67
MEASUREMENT OF
VOLTAGE AND
CURRENT

68
Measurement of voltage and current
• Ammeters are used to measure current
• Voltmeters are used to measure voltage.
• The action of all ammeters and voltmeters, with the exception of
electrostatic type of instruments, depends upon a deflecting torque
produced by an electric current.
• In an ammeter, this torque is produced by current to be measured or by a
definite fraction of it.
• In voltmeter, this torque is produced by a current which is proportional to the
voltage to be measured.
• Thus, all voltmeters and ammeter are essentially current measuring devices.

69
Types of Instruments
• The main types of instruments used as ammeters and voltmeters are:
• Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
• Moving iron (MI)
• Electrodynamometer
• Hot wire
• Thermocouple
• Induction
• Electrostatic
• Rectifier

70
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
• PMMC is the most accurate type for direct current measurements.
• The working principle of these instruments is same as that of
d’Arsonval type of galvanometer, the difference being that a direct
reading instrument is provided with a pointer and a scale.

71
PMMC
• Construction
• Moving coil
• Magnet system
• Control system
• Damping

72
Construction of PMMC
• MOVING COIL:
• The coil is mounted on a rectangular aluminium former which is pivoted on
jewelled bearings.
• The coil moves freely in the field of a permanent magnet.
• MAGNET SYSTEM:
• There are many types of magnetic systems used.
• In order to obtain longer movement of the pointer and a longer angular swing
of the coil, a concentric magnet construction is used.
• This type produces a radial flux pattern which extends over 250° or more.
• This type of construction is used for many panel type instruments and some
portable instruments.
73
Construction (cont.):
• CONTROL:
• When the coil is supported between two jewel bearings, the control torque is
provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs.
• These springs also serve to lead current in and out of the coil.
• DAMPING:
• Damping torque is produced by movement of the aluminium former moving
in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet.

74
Deflection produced in PMMC
Deflection torque is
where is a constant =
N is the number of turns of coil
B is the magnetic flux density
I is the current flowing through the coil
dA is the dimension of the coil

The spring control provides a restoring (controlling) torque

where K=spring constant.

For final steady deflection

75
Example:
A permanent magnet moving coil instrument has a coil of dimensions
15 mm X 12 mm. The flux density In the air gap is 1.8x10-3 Wb/m2 and
the spring constant is 0.14x10-8 Nm/rad. Determine the number of
turns required to produce an angular deflection of 90 degrees when a
current of 5 mA is flowing through the coil.

Solution :
Deflection
At equilibrium,
where Td is the deflecting torque and Tc is the controlling torque

76
Solved example (cont.):
Number of turns
=

= 136

77
Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC
Advantages
• The scale is uniformly divided.
• The power consumption is very
low as low as 25μW to 200μW.
• The torque-weight ratio is high
which gives a high accuracy.
• Stray magnetic fields are low due
to high magnetic flux densities.
Disadvantages
• These instruments are useful only for
d.c.
• The torque reverses if the current
reverses. If the instrument is connected
to a.c. the pointer cannot follow the rapid
reversals and the deflection corresponds
to mean torque, which is zero. Hence
these instruments cannot be used for ac.
• The cost of these instruments are
higher than that of moving iron
instruments.
78
Moving Iron Instruments (MI)
• The most common ammeters and voltmeters for laboratory or switch-
board use at power frequencies are the moving iron instruments.
• Types of MI include :
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type
• Radial vane
• Coaxial vane

79
Types of MI
MOVING IRON
INSTRUMENTS
(MI)

Attraction type Repulsion type

Radial vane

Coaxial vane

80
 Types of Moving Iron (MI)

Attraction type MI Repulsion type MI

https://circuitglobe.com/moving-iron-or-mi-instrument.html 81
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Moving-Iron-Instruments--Classification,-Construction,-Torque-Equation,--Errors,-Advantages-and-Disadvantages_12721 /
Working Principle of MI
• A plate or vane of soft iron or of high permeability steel forms the moving
element of the system.
• This iron vane is so situated that it can move in a magnetic field produced by a
stationary coil.
• The coil is excited by the current or voltage under measurement. When the
coil is excited, it becomes an electromagnet.
• The iron vane moves in such a way so as to increase the flux of the
electromagnet. This is because the vane tries to occupy a position of minimum
reluctance.
• Thus the force (or torque) produced is always in such a direction as to increase
the inductance of the coil (As inductance increases as reluctance decreases).
82
Deflection produced in MI
Let,
• Td = Deflection torque in N-m
• θ = Deflection in radians
• L = Inductance in Henry
• I = Initial current in Ampere
• dI = Change in initial current
• dL = Change in inductance
• dθ = Change in deflection

The voltage drop across the ammeter is given by,

83
Deflection produced in MI (cont.):
The energy consumed by the meter,

For a small increment in current (dI), the deflection is increased by

dθ. We know that the energy stored by the inductance of the meter
=
Therefore, new energy storage due to increment in current,
=
84
Deflection produced in MI (cont.):
The change in stored energy is,

85
Deflection produced in MI (cont.):
Neglecting higher order terms,

= LIdI + 1/2 I^2 dL ...(2)

We have work done = Td × dθ = Td dθ ...(3)

From the law of conservation of energy, we have,

Energy consumed = Work done + Change in stored energy …….. 4

Substituting equations (1),(2) and (3) in 4,

we get,

86
Deflection produced in MI (cont.):

87
Attraction type Moving Iron
• Construction :
• The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like
opening.
• The moving iron is a flat disc or a sector
eccentrically mounted.
• Working:
• When the current flows through the coil, a
magnetic field is produced and the moving
iron moves from the weaker field outside the
coil to the stronger field inside.
• The controlling torque is provided by springs
• Damping is provided by air friction usually by
a vane moving in a sector shaped chamber.

88
Repulsion type Moving Iron
• In repulsion type, there are two
vanes inside the coil, one fixed
and other movable.
• These are magnetized when
current flows through the coil
and there is a force of repulsion
between two vanes resulting in
the movement of moving vane.

89
Repulsion type Moving Iron (Radial vane)

90
91
Repulsion type Moving Iron (Radial vane)

92
Application in both a.c. and d.c.
measurements
• Whatever may be the direction of the current in the coil of the
instrument, the iron vanes are so magnetized that there is always a
force of attraction in the attraction type and repulsion in the repulsion
type of instruments.
• Thus, moving iron instruments are unpolarised instruments i.e., they
are independent of the direction in which the current passes.
• Therefore, these instruments can be used on both a.c. and d.c.

93
Advantages and disadvantages of MI
ADVANTAGES
• These instruments can be used for
both a.c and d.c.
• Errors due to friction are quite small
as torque-weight ratio is quite high
in these instruments.
• Instruments are robust due to simple
construction.
• These instruments are expected to
be accurate within 0.2% to 0.3% at
50 Hz.
DISADVANTAGES
• These instruments are subjected to
serious errors due to hysteresis,
frequency changes and stray
magnetic fields.
• The scale of moving iron
instruments not uniform.
94
DIGITAL VOLTMETER

95
Digital voltmeter (DVM)
• A digital voltmeter displays the value of a.c. or d.c. voltages being
measured directly as discrete numerals in the decimal number
system.
• Numerical readings of DVMs is advantageous since it eliminates
observational errors committed by operators.

96
Commonly used types

DVM

Ramp Integrating Potentiometric

97
Ramp type DVM
• The operating principle of a ramp type digital voltmeter is to measure
the time that a linear ramp voltage takes to change from level of input
voltage to zero voltage (or vice versa).
• This time interval is measured with an electronic time interval counter
and the count is displayed as a number of digits on electronic
indicating tubes or the output readout of the voltmeter.

98
 Ramp type DVM (cont.):

99
https://www.eeeguide.com/ramp-technique/
Ramp type DVM (cont.):
Working:
• At the start of measurement a ramp voltage is initiated. The ramp voltage
value is continuously compared with the voltage being measured (unknown
voltage).
• At the instant the value of ramp voltage is equal to that of unknown voltage a
coincidence circuit, called an input comparator, generates a pulse which
opens a gate
• The ramp voltage continues to decrease till it reaches zero voltage. At this
instant another comparator called ground comparator generates a pulse and
closes the gate.
• During this time interval pulses from a clock pulse generator pass through the
gate and are counted and displayed.
100
Integrating type DVM
• This voltmeter measures the true average value of the input voltage
over a fixed measuring period.
• In contrast, the ramp type DVM samples the voltage at the end of the
measuring period.
• This voltmeter employs an integration technique which uses a voltage
to frequency conversion.
• The voltage to frequency (V/f) converter functions as a feedback
control system which governs the rate of pulse generation in
proportion to the magnitude of input voltage.

101
 Block diagram of Integrating type DVM

Where e0 is the output of the comparator

& er is the reference voltage.

102
https://www.eeeguide.com/integrating-type-dvm/
Potentiometric Type DVM
• A potentiometric type of DVM employs voltage comparison
technique.
• The unknown voltage is compared with a reference voltage whose
value is fixed by the setting of the calibrated potentiometer.
• The potentiometer setting is changed to obtain balance (i.e. null
conditions). When null conditions are obtained the value of the
unknown voltage, is indicated by the dial setting of the potentiometer.

103
 104
http://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/electronic_engineering/Potentiometric_Type_Digital_Voltmeter.pdf
Guarding

105
Guarding
PROPER GUARD CONNECTION SHUNTS COMMON
UNGUARDED VOLTMETER SHOWING MODE CURRENT AWAY FROM SOURCE
POSSIBLE COMMON MODE CURRENTS RESISTANCES

106
Principle
• A guarded instrument has an additional shield between the low and
ground, effectively increasing the low to ground leakage impedance;
• The extra shield divides the low-to-ground impedance into series
impedances, Z and Z3, increasing the resistance and decreasing the
total capacitance.
• The resulting higher impedance improves the leakage resistance,
thereby protecting the instrument against leakage currents.

107
Standards of Measurement

108
Standards of Measurement

Standards of
Measurement

International Primary Secondary Working

standards standards standards standards

109
International Standards
• The international standards are defined on the basis of international
agreement. They represent the units of measurements which are closest to
the possible accuracy attainable with present day technological and scientific
methods
• The International Standards are maintained at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures and are not available to the ordinary user of measuring
instruments for the purposes of calibration or comparison.
• Eg. International Ohm: It is defined as the resistance offered to the passage of an in
varying current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice, of mass
14'4521 gm of uniform cross-sectional area and length 106'300 cm.
• International Ampere: H is the unvarying current which, when passed. through a
solution of silver nitrate in water (prepared in accordance with stipulated
specifications) deposits silver at the rate of 0'00111800 gm per second.
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Primary Standards
• Primary standards are absolute standards of such high accuracy that
they can be used as the ultimate reference standards.
• These standards are maintained by national standards laboratories in
different parts of the world like National Bureau of Standards in
Washington or National Physical Laboratory in Delhi.
• They are constructed for highest possible accuracy and their primary
purpose is to check the secondary standards.

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Secondary Standards
• The secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in
industrial measurement laboratories. The responsibility of maintenance
and calibration of these standards lies with the particular industry involved.
• These standards are checked locally against reference standards available in
the area.
• Secondary standards are normally sent periodically to the national
standards laboratories for calibration and comparison against primary
standards.
• The secondary standards are sent back to the industry by the national
laboratories with a certification as regards their measured values in terms
of primary standards.
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Working Standards
• The working standards are the major tools of a measurement
laboratory. These standards are used to check and calibrate general
laboratory instruments for their accuracy and performance.
• For example, a manufacturer of precision resistances, may use a Standard
Resistance (which may be a working standard) in the quality control
department for checking the values of resistors that are being manufactured.
This way, he verifies that his measurement set up performs within the limits
of accuracy that are specified.

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