FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER

Lecture 2: ERRORS IN of their measurements and

SURVEY MEASUREMENTS whether they meet
requirements.
Previous lecture
■ An error is the difference
■ Definition of surveying between a measured quantity
and its true value
■ Plane and geodetic surveying
Error Formula:
■ Different types of surveying
Measurements
The process of estimating the
magnitude of some attribute of an Correction Formula:
object relative to a standard unit
The application of a device or
apparatus for the purpose of
determining an unknown quantity Sources of error
An observation made to determine ■ Instrumental
an unknown quantity
– Caused by imperfections in
■ Characteristics of measurements instrument construction or
– No measurements are exact adjustment
– True value is never known – Wear and tear
– All measurements contain errors ■ Natural errors
Measurements – caused by changing conditions
■ Types of measurements in the surrounding environment.
– Temperature, wind, moisture, etc
– Direct
■ Personal errors
■ Direct measurement’ refers to
measuring exactly the thing that – Caused by limitations in human
you’re looking to measure sense

■ Taping, rope Types of errors

– Indirect ■ Mistakes/blunders/Gross errors

■ Deducing the measurement from – Caused by confusion or

measurements of other carelessness of the observer
quantities. – Faults in equipment
– Use of wrong technique
■ measuring something by – Misinterpretation
measuring something else – Can be spotted by check
■ EDM, stadia tacheometry measurements and then
eliminated
Errors
Examples
■ Every measuring technique is
subject to unavoidable error. A ➢ Wrong booking
surveyor must know the quality ➢ Misreading the tape
➢ Miscounting tape lengths
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
■ Systematic errors - Random errors follow general
laws of probability and these are:
– Follow some physical law
– Stays constant in sign and ■ Small errors occur more
magnitude when repeated under frequently and therefore are
the same condition. more frequent than large
– They are cumulative in nature ones
Corrections: ■ Large errors happen
infrequently and are
– applying some mathematical therefore less probable,
corrections. very large errors may be
– Can also be removed by mistakes and not random
calibrating the observing errors
equipment and quantifying the ■ Positive and negative errors
errors of the same size are equally
– Proper selection of measuring probable and happen with
procedure equal frequency.

Examples Examples

➢ Wrong length of tape ➢ holding and marking

➢ Poor ranging ➢ variation in tension
➢ poor straightening
➢ slope
➢ sag
➢ temperature variation
➢ wrong tensioning
■ Random errors
– Errors that remain in a
measurement after systematic
and gross errors have been
removed. Reliability of measurements
– Magnitude and direction of the ■ Mean
error beyond the control of the
surveyor ■ Standard deviation
– Compensating Quality of measurements
– Normally distributed
■ Accuracy
After mistakes are eliminated and
systematic errors are corrected, a – Degree of perfection obtained in
survey measurement is associated with a measurement
random error only. This error is small – Absolute nearness of a
measured quantity to its true
and is equally liable to be plus or minus
value
thus partly compensating in nature.
Random errors are unpredictable and ■ Precision
they cannot be evaluated or quantified
– The closeness of one
exactly. measurement to another
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
– Degree of consistency between
measurements
– Based on the size of
discrepancies in a data set
■ Accuracy is telling the truth
■ Precision is repeating the same story
over and over again.
IN SURVEYING WE WANT OUR
MEASUREMENTS TO BE
ACCURATE AND PRECISE
Significant Figures
■ The number of significant digits
in a number/value.
■ Measurements can only be
accurate to the degree that the
measuring instrument is precise.
Rules and conventions:
■ All non-zero digits in a number are
significant.
Example: Numbers 0.0000216,
0.0216, 21.6 and 216 have the same
number of significant figures namely
three (2, 1, 6).
■ All zeros between two non-zero
digits are significant, no matter
where the decimal point is, if at all.
Example: In the numbers 0.0000206,
0.0206, 20.6 and 206, the zero lying
between the digits 2 and 6 is only
significant.
■ If the number is less than 1, the
zeroes on the right of decimal point
but to the left of the first non-zero
digit are not significant.
Example: In 0.0000206, the four zeros
after decimal and before the digit 2 has
no significance. Similarly, in 0.0206, the
zero after decimal and before the digit 2
has no significance. So the number of
significant figures of these numbers are
three (2, 0 and 6).
■ The terminal or trailing zeros in a
number without a decimal point are
significant depending on accuracy
of measurement.
Example: In 2360 m, the terminal zero
has no significance, if the accuracy of
measurement is 10 m then the number
of significant figures of this number is
three (2, 3 and 6). If the accuracy of
measurement is 1 m, the terminal zero
is significant figures of this same
number will be four (i.e. 2, 3, 6 & 0).
■ The digit 0 conventionally put on the
left of a decimal for a number less
than 1 is never significant. However,
the zeros at the end of such number
are significant in a measurement.
Example: The number 0.120 has three
significant numbers. The zero before
the decimal point is not significant.
■ The terminal or trailing zeros in a
number with a decimal point are
significant.
Example: In 23.60 m, the terminal zero
has significance, so the number of
significant figures in this number is four
(2, 3, 6 and 0).
Error propagation
■ Propagation of Error
– Error Propagation in a Sum or a
Difference of Measurments
– Error Propagation in a Product of
Measurments
– Error Propagation in a Division
– Error Propagation due to the
Power of a Measured Quantity
Addition and Subtraction
■ When two or more quantities are
added or subtracted, the error in
result (Es) is the square root of the
sum of the square of the errors (e1,
e2, .....) of the individual quantity i.e.,
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
For example : The total distance D =
(120 ± 2) mm + (321 ± 5) mm
Product
■ When two or more quantities are
multiplied, the error in result (Eproduct)
is the square root of the sum of the
square of the fractional errors of the
individual quantity. Thus, where EA
and EB are errors in observed
values of A and B respectively.
For example: A rectangle is measured
160.881 ± 0.026 cm long and 75.007 ±
0.001 cm wide. The error in its area
(12,067 cm2) is
Division
■ When two or more quantities are
divided, the error in result is the
square root of the sum of the square
of the fractional errors in the
individual quantity.
Power
■ The error in a physical quantity
raised to the power is the power
times the fractional errors in the
individual quantity.
For example: If a sphere's radius is
measured as 10.00 ± 0.08 m, the
calculated volume is 4188.8 m3 and the
error will be
Lecture 3- FIELD NOTES
The Field Notes
• In practice the field notebook
should be of good quality paper,
with stiff board or leather cover
made to withstand hard usage,
and of the pocket size.
Types of field notes
• Sketches
A good sketch will help to convey a
correct impression. Sketches are rarely
made to exact scale, but in the most
cases they are made approximately to
scale. So, most of the time sketches are
drawn freehand.
• Tabulations
A series of numerical values
observed in the field are best shown in
a tabulated format. Tabulated form of
note keeping conveys the required
information in a simple and define
manner. Tabular forms should be used
whenever possible to prevent mistakes.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
• Explanatory notes
Explanatory notes provide a written
description of what has been done in
the field. These are employed to make
clear what the numerical data and
sketches fail to do.
• Computations
Calculation are large part of the
work of surveyor. Most surveying type
computations are made algebraically
by the use of simple arithmetical steps
and trigonometric functions.
Information found in field notes
• Title of the field work
• Time of the day and date
• Weather conditions
• Name of group members and
their descriptions
• List of materials and equipment
Field Survey Party
1. Chief of the party – the person who
is responsible for the overall
direction, supervision, and
operational control of the survey
party. He is also responsible for its
logistical and technical
requirements, and problems of a
field survey operations.
2. Assistant chief of party – the
person whose duty is to assist the
chief of the party in the
accomplishment of the task
assigned to the survey party. He
takes over the duties of the chief of
party during the absence of the chief
of party.
3. Instrument man – the person
whose duty is to set up, level, and
operate surveying instruments such
as the transit, engineer’s level,
theodolite and etc. He sees to it that
instrument to be used is a survey
operations are in good working
conditions.
4. Technician- The person who is
responsible for use and operation of
all electronic instrument required in
a field work operation, It is his duty
to see to it that all equipment are
functioning properly, regularly
calibrated, and properly adjusted.
5. Computer – the person whose duty
is to perform all computations of
survey data and works out
necessary computational checks
required in a field work operation.
6. Recorder – the person whose duty
is to keep a record of all sketches,
drawings, measurements and
observations taken of needed for a
field work operation.
7. Head tapeman
- the person responsible for the
accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with tape. He
determines and
- Directs the marking of stations to
be occupied by the surveying
instruments and directs the
clearing out of obstructions
along the line of sight.
8. Rear tapeman – the person whose
duty is to assist the head tapeman
during taping operations and in
other related works.
9. Flagman – the person whose duty
is to hold the flagpole or range pole
at selected points as directed by the
instrumentman. He also helps the
tapeman in making measurements
and assist the axeman in
cutting down branches and
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
clearing other obstruction to line of presumed to be horizontal distances.
sight. This dictates that every field
measurements taken be either
10. Rodman – the person whose
measured horizontally, or if not,
primary duty is to hold the stadia or
reduced to a horizontal distance
leveling rod when sights are to be
mathematically.
taken on it.
Distance between points can be
11. Pacer – the person whose duty is to
also be determined using geometric or
check all linear measurements
trigonometric computations working
made by the tapeman. In addition
with related distance and angle
the pacer may also perform the job
measurements.
of a rodman.
➢ If the angle α is determined, the
12. Axeman/lineman – the person
horizontal distance between points
whose duty is to clear the line of
A and B can be computed from the
sight of trees, brush, and other
relation;
obstruction in wooden country. He
is also responsible for the security H = L cos α
and safety of the members of the
H; is the horizontal distance between
survey party at the survey site.
points,
13. Aidman the person whose duty is to
L; is the slope length
render first aid treatment to
members of the survey party who d; is the vertical angle from horizontal
are involved in insect bites,
accidents, and other cases involving ➢ If the difference in elevation d
their health, safety and well being. between the ends of the tape is
measured, which is done by
14. Utility man – the person whose leveling, the horizontal distance can
duties are to render other forms of be computed using the following
assistance needed by the survey expression derived from the
party or as directed by the chief of Pythagorean Theorem;
party.

Lecture 4- HORIZONTAL
C is the difference between H horizontal
DISTANCE MEASUREMENT and L is slope distance;
Distance Measurement C is approximately;
In plane surveying, the distance
between two points means the
horizontal distance. If the points are at
different elevation, the distance is the
horizontal length between vertical lines
at the points.
In surveying, that undermost Uphill (+) Downhill (-)
circumstances, all distance are
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
distance AB. What is the pace length
and the length of AB?
Solution
Pace length = 60.00/88 = 0.6818
m/pace
Length of AB = 0.6818*111 = 75.6798
≈ 75.680 m

FORMULAS:
A. Pace factor
HB= height of B 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
=
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠
HA = height of A
Methods for making linear B. Pace distance
measurements; = 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∗ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠

There are several direct and C. Relative precision

indirect methods of determining 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑛𝑐𝑒
distances. =
𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
▪ Pacing TAPING
▪ Taping
▪ Electronic Distance Measurement Taping is the linear
measurement of the horizontal distance
▪ Others
between two points using a surveyor’s
Most surveying field distance tape.
measurements are accomplished by
Observation of horizontal
using either taping (steel or fiber glass
distances by taping consists of
tape) or electronic distance
applying the known length of a
measurements (EDM) .
graduated tape directly to line a
PACING number of times.
Pacing is best done: ♦ Measurement of horizontal
distances by taping consists of
♦ by walking with natural steps back
applying the known length of a
and forth over a measured level
graduated tape directly to a line for
course at least 100 m long, and
a number of times.
♦ dividing the known distance by the Taping equipment and accessories:
average number of steps.
Metric tapes have standard lengths of
Example 10, 20, 30, 50, 60 ,100 m. All can either
A person counted 88 paces by be wound on a reel (a) or done up in
walking along 60.00 m know length on loops .
level ground and 111 paces of unknown
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
Invar tapes are made of special steel
to reduce length variations caused by
differences in temperature.
Cloth (metallic) tapes are actually
made of high-grade linen, wide with fine
copper wires running lengthwise to give
additional strength and prevent
excessive elongation. (b)
Chaining pins (taping pins) are used
to mark tape lengths .Most taping pins
made of sharply pointed at one end,
have a round loop at the other end, and
are painted with alternate red and white
bands (c) .
The hand level is a simple instrument
used to keep tape ends at equal
elevations when observing over rough
terrain (d).
Tension handles facilitate the
application of the desired standard or
known tension.
A pocket thermometer permits
reading data for making temperature
corrections.
Range poles (lining rods) made of
wood, steel or aluminum. The main
utility of range poles is to mark the line
being measured so that the tape’s
alignment can be maintained (e).
Plump bobs are used in taping to
permit the surveyor to hold the tape
horizontal when the ground is sloping. A
graduation mark on the horizontal tape
can be transferred down to a point on
the ground using the plumb bob string.
Also, a plumb bobs can be used to
provide precise theodolite and total
station sightings (f).
Procedure in Taping:
♦ Clear line and mark at both ends,
and at intermediate points
where necessary.
♦ Lay out tape on ground making sure
there are no kinks
♦ Apply tension (10-25 lbs)
♦ The 30 m end of the tape is held
over the rear point by the rear
tapeperson, while the forward
tapeperson, holding the zero end.
♦ For accurate results the tape must
be straight and the two ends held at
the same elevation.
♦ Use plum-bob
♦ Weeds, brush, obstacles, and
surface irregularities may make it
undesirable to lay a tape on the
ground.
♦ In those cases, the tape is held
above the ground in horizontal
position.
♦ Mark each end point on the tape by
placing the plumb-bob string over
the the proper tape graduation.
♦ Marking tape lengths
♦ The forward tapeperson places a
pin exactly opposite the ZERO
mark of the tape and calls “stuck”
and signals that the point is OK.
♦ The rare tapeperson pulls up the
rear pin, and then move a head.
♦ The process of measuring 30 m
lengths is repeated until a partial
tape length is needed at the end of
the line.
♦ Read the tape
Taping on the Level Ground:
In many instances, it is easiest to
simply measure the horizontal distance
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
by keeping both ends of the chain (steel
tape) at the same elevation. This is not
difficult if there is not over long distance
or so of elevation change between
points.
Taping requires a minimum of two
people. Using range poles, the line to
be measured should be marked at both
ends (in a vertical position), and at
intermediate points where necessary, to
ensure the unobstructed sight lines.
The forward tapeperson is lined in by
the rear tapeperson. Directions are
given by vocal and signals.
The rear tapeperson holding the 0m
end of a tape over the first (rear) point
lines in the forward tapeperson, holding
the other end of the tape. For accurate
results the tape must be straight and
the two ends held at the same
elevation. A specified tension is applied.
In some case, Plumb-bob is used to
hold the tape above ground in a
horizontal position. Placing the plumb-
bob string over the proper tape
graduation and securing it with one
thumb, mark each end point on the
tape. The rear tapeperson continues to
hold a plumb over the fixed point, while
the forward tapeperson marks the
length. In measuring a distance shorter
than a full tape length, the forward tape
person moves the plumb-bob string to a
point on the tape over the ground mark.
When the tape has been lined in,
tension has been applied, and the rear
tapeperson is over the point, “stick” is
called out. The forward tapeperson
then places a pin exactly opposite the
zero mark of the tape and calls “ stuck”.
The marked points is checked by
repeating the measurement until
certainty of its correct location is
assured. After checking the
measurement, the forward tapeperson
signals that the point is “OK!” the rear
tapeperson pulls up the rear pin, and
they move ahead. The forward
tapeperson drags the tape, paces
roughly 30m, and stops. Just the 30m
end reaches the set pin, the rear tape
person calls “tape” to notify the forward
tapeperson that they have gone 30m.
The process of measuring 30m lengths
is repeated until a partial tape length is
needed at the end of the line.
Taping on the Sloping Ground:
If the ground is not level, one or both
surveyors must use a plumb bob.
Normally, the only occasion when both
surveyors have to use plumb bobs is
when the ground rises or obstacles
exist between two surveyors.
Use of a steel tape and plumb bob
When plumbing, it is advisable to
hold the tape close to the body and
thus provide good leverage for applying
or holding tension and to transfer
accurately from tape to ground, vice
versa.
If the rear surveyor is using a
plump bob, he or she shouts out “tape,”
“mark” or some other sign that, at that
instant, the plumb is steady over the
mark. If the head surveyor is also using
a plumb bob, he or she must wait to
take a reading until both plumb bobs
are simultaneously over their
respective marks.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
Breaking tape:
In practice, most measurements
are taken with the tape held
horizontally. If the slope is too great to
allow an entire tape length to be
employed, shorter increments are
measured until all the required distance
has been measured. This operation is
known as breaking tape.
In taping uneven or sloping
ground, it is standard practice to hold
the tape horizontally and use a plumb-
bob at one or perhaps both ends.
On steeper slopes, where a full
length of tape cannot be held
horizontally without plumbing from
above shoulder level, shorter distances
are measured and accumulated to total
a full tape length. This procedure is
called as breaking tape.
Taping downhill is preferable to
measuring uphill for two reason. First;
in taping downhill, the rear point is held
steady on fixed object while the other
end is plumbed. In taping uphill, the
forward point must be set while the
other end is wavering somewhat.
Second, if breaking tape necessary,
the head tapeperson can more
conveniently use the hand level to
proceed downhill a distance, which
renders the tape horizontal when held
comfortably at chest height.
In some cases, it becomes
impractical to break chain. When the
slope becomes so steep that frequent
chaining (tape) points are required, a
vertical surface must be measured
across, or intermediate chaining (tape)
points are not readily accessible, it may
be more desirable to determine the
horizontal distance indirectly. The most
frequently used method is "slope
chaining (tape)", where the distance
along the slope is measured, the slope
rate is determined, and the horizontal
distance calculated.
When the vertical (slope) angle
(α) is used, the horizontal distance
(HD) is calculated by multiplying the
slope distance (SD) by the cosine of
the vertical angle. This is the solution of
a right triangle for the side adjacent
(horizontal distance) with the
hypotenuse (slope distance) known.
Basic Trigonometry,
cosine = Adjacent Side / Hypotenuse
Substituting the known values, we
have;
cos(α) = HD / SD Solving for HD by
multiplying both sides of the equation
by SD, we get ;
HD = SD.cos(α)
If the zenith angle (z) is
measured rather than the vertical
angle, the calculations are nearly
identical. The only variation is that the
zenith angle is the complimentary angle
of the vertical(slope)angle, so the sine
function must be used. The formula is;
HD = SD.sin(z)
Observation of traverse length with
taping:
Averages of distances observed
forward and back will provide
increased accuracy, and the repeat
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
readings afford a check on the
observation.
S1 = the distance of AB line (forward
observation) with taping
S2 = the distance of AB line (backward
observation) with taping
d = tolerance (in respect of Production
Regulation of Large
Scale Map standards. Item no.27 / b, d=
3 cm)
If Absolute value ( S2-S1) ≤ d
distance of AB line = (S1 + S2 ) /
2 (mean value of observations)
if not absolute value ( S2- S1) ≤ d
observations are dismissed and
observations are repeated.
1)Sources of error in taping:
a) Instrumental errors
A tape may differ in actual length
from its nominal graduates length
because of a defect in manufacture or
repair, or as a result of kinks.
b) Natural errors
The horizontal distance between end
graduations of tape varies because of
the effects of temperature, wind, and
weight of tape itself.
c) Personal errors
Tapeperson setting pins, reading
the tape, or manipulating the
equipment.
Electronic Distance Measurement
A major advance in surveying
instrumentation occurred
approximately 60 years ago with the
development of electronic distance
measuring (EDM) instruments.
These devices measure lengths
by indirectly determining the number of
full and partial waves of transmitted,
electromagnetic energy required in
traveling between the two ends of a
line. In practice, the energy is
transmitted from one end of the line to
the other and returned to starting point;
thus it travels the double path distance.
Multiplying the total number of cycles
by its wavelength and dividing by 2,
yields the40 unknown distance.
Total Station Instruments:
❑ an EDM instrument,
❑ an electronic digital theodolite
❑ computer in one unit.
Total Station:
❑ automatically measure horizontal
angles
❑ zenith (vertical) angles,
❑ distances,
❑ transmit the results in a real time to
built-in computer.
The horizontal and zenith (or
altitude) angle and slope distance can
be displayed, and then upon keyboard
commands, horizontal and vertical
distance components can be computed
from these data and displayed. If the
instrument is oriented in direction and
the coordinates of the occupied station
are input in the system, the coordinates
of any point sighted can be immediately
obtained.
These data can all be stored
within the instrument, or in a data
collector.
All EDM equipments measures
the slope distance between two
stations.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
If The EDM unit is incorporated Where:
into a total station instrument, then it
CL = correction to be applied to
can reduce the distances to their
the measured length to obtain
horizontal components automatically.
the true length (m).
With some of the earliest EDM’s,
l = actual tape length (m).
this could not be done and reductions
were carried out manually. l’ = nominal tape length (m).
It is presumed, of course, that L = measured (recorded) length
slope distances are first corrected for of line (m).
instrumental and atmospheric
conditions.
Reduction of slope distance to
horizontal can be based on elevation
differences, or on zenith (or vertical)
angle. Because of the Earth curvature,
long lines must be treated differently in • Temperature other than standard
reduction than short ones.
Lecture 5- ERRORS AND
CORRECTION IN TAPING
Where:
CT = correction in the line caused
by nonstandard temperature
(m).
k = coefficient of thermal
expansion and contraction of the
tape. For ordinary tape, k =
0.0000116 per unit length per
degree Celsius.
T = tape temperature at time of
measurement (0C).
RANDOM ERRORS IN TAPING T = tape temperature when it has
standard length (0C).
• Improper plumbing.
• Faulty marking. L = measured (recorded) length
• Incorrect reading or interpolation. of line (m).
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS IN TAPING
• Incorrect length of tape
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
LS = unsupported length of the
tape (m).
• Inconsistent pull
w = weight of the tape per unit
of length (kg/m).
P1 = pull of the tape (kg).

Where:
Cp = elongation in tape length
due to pull (m)
P1 = pull applied to the tape at
the time of observation (kg).
P = standard pull for the tape
(kg).
A = area in square centimeters
(cm2) Lecture 6- PROFILE LEVILING

E = kilogram per square Profile Leveling

centimeter (kg/cm2) (E= • To collect data about topography
2
2,000,000 kg/cm ) along a reference line.
L = measured (recorded) length • Mainly to compute volumes of cut
of line (m). and fill for a proposed linear
structure, such as: highways,
railroads, transmission lines,
canals. Then the best route can be
chosen.
• The result: elevations at definite
points (stations) along a reference
line, usually the center line.
Staking and Stationing the
Reference Line
• First, topography is studied, a center
line is chosen.
• Second, points (stations) are
• Sag marked (staked).
• Stations are set at starting and
ending points, then intermediate
stations.
• Distance between the intermediate
stations is usually 100ft, could be
Where: less if topography is rough.
CS = correction for sag (m).
 FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING REVIEWER
• Stationing: a system adopted to
specify the relative positions of
points along the reference line.
• Distances are written in the form of
a sum: A + B.
• A is hundreds of feet, B is feet.
For example
Station K is (10+24.5) = 1024.5ft from
a certain zero, may not exist.
o First station is usually designated
with arbitrary value: 10+00,
100+00
o To compute distances along the
line, erase the + sign, and subtract
the two numbers
o Distance between the
stations:(20+68) and (30+34) =
3034 - 2068 = 966 ft
o First a backsight at a BM is
observed.
o Then, a number of intermediate
foresights are observed at the
stations needed, do not have to be
at equal distances.
o When the distance becomes too
long, or readings become hard to
observe, a turning point is
constructed.
o You cannot keep the backsight
Elevation computation:
Elevation of line of sight (HI)
= 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝐵𝑀 + 𝐵𝑆𝐵𝑀
Elevation of any intermediate point
= 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆𝐼𝑃
Handle new level positions as in
differential leveling, construct a turning
point and knowing BS and FS
readings, compute a new elevation of
line of sight.
Drawing and using Profiles
■ Drawn using a software now. The
following is for reference only, will
not be in exams.
■ To manually draw a profile and
compute earthwork:
□ Assume the horizontal axis is the
distance and the vertical axis is
the elevation.
□ Use a larger scale for the
elevation than the distance
scale, usually 10 times larger.
□ Draw the design line at the
proposed grade.
□ Compute the areas of cut and fill.
□ Multiply area by width to get
volumes.
□ Gradient (percent grade) is the
rise or fall in ft per 100 ft, or
meter per 100 meter.