Cartography
Art and science of graphically representing a
geographical area, usually on a flat surface such
as a map or chart.
What is a Map?
• A map is a graphic representation of the
cultural and physical environment.
• It is a reduced, selective, and symbolized
graphical representation of an
environment.
Classification of Maps
• Tangible
- a map that you can hold in your hands
such as a paper map
• Virtual
- any map displayed on a computing
device. Maps are now found on desktop
computers, tablets, laptops, phones,
GPS receivers, and many other digital
devices.
• Mental
- a map that is stored in someone’s mind
and is their conceptualization of space.
Mental maps do not translate exactly
from person-to-person except through
the conversion of the mental map to a
tangible or virtual map, or to any other
communication path such as speech or
writing.
There are 2 types of maps that can be
Tangible or Virtual
1. General Reference Maps
- are often also called basemaps
- emphasizes location and shows a variety of
features. A general reference map primarily
displays objects, their location, and identifying
information
2. Thematic Maps
- emphasizes attributes related to a single
subject or theme. Thematic maps typically have
a very specific purpose and wish to convey a
very specific message related to, typically, a
single subject.
Types of Maps
• PLANIMETRIC MAPS
– It is a representation of the earth’s
surface in the two horizontal
dimensions only. It shows the correct
horizontal position of natural and
man-made features such as
buildings, roads, bodies of water,
land forms, vegetation, and political
boundaries.
• TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
– It shows the same features as a
planimetric map and in addition
indicates relief, usually by means of
contours which is its distinguishing
characteristics.
• THEMATIC MAPS
– emphasizes attributes related to a
single subject or theme. Thematic
maps typically have a very specific
purpose and wish to convey a very
specific message related to, typically,
a single subject.
• COMPUTER GENERATED MAPS
• PHOTOMAPS
– A reproduction of an aerial
photograph or a mosaic (an
assembly of photographs) on which
grid lines, contours, boundaries,
placenames, and marginal
information have been added or
overprinted.
Purpose of Maps
• The purpose of maps lies chiefly in
navigation and in helping cultures
determine new trade routes.
• To understand relative locations,
concepts of global geography and
weather
SCALE, COORDINATE SYSTEMS, AND
PROJECTIONS
Map Scale
• Refers to the relationship (or ratio)
between distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on the ground.
(On a 1:100000 scale map, 1cm on the
map equals 1km on the ground)
• The smaller the map scale, the larger the
reference number and vice versa (1:1000
scale map is a larger scale than a 1:2500
scale map)
Types of Scale
1) EQUIVALENCE SCALE
a. It is expressed by words and
figures.
Ex. 1 inch = 1 mile
2) SCALE RATIO OR REPRESENTATIVE
SCALE
a. It is referred to as natural scales
which are expressed as ratios.
Ex. :10000
3) GRAPHIC SCALE – It is a line subdivided
into map distances corresponding to
convenient units of length on the ground.
Classification of Map Scales
a. Large Scale Maps
- Are those having scales of 1:2,000 or larger
and with contour intervals ranging from 0.10 to
2 meters.
b. Medium scale Maps
- Are maps having scales ranging from 1:2,000
to 1:10,000 and with contour intervals ranging
from 2.0 to 5.0 meters.
c. Small Scale Maps
- Are maps having scales of 1:10,000 or smaller
and with contour intervals ranging from 5 to
2,000 meters.
Coordinate Systems
Coordinate systems are frameworks that are
used to define unique positions. For instance, in
geometry we use x (horizontal) and y (vertical)
coordinates to define points on a two-
dimensional plane.
Two Common Coordinate Systems
1. Geographic coordinate system (GCS)
• Latitude lines run east-west and are
parallel
• Longitude lines run from north-south
• Unit of measurement in GCS is angular
(degrees, minutes, and seconds)
2. Projected coordinate system
• In projected coordinate system, earth is
represented on flat two-dimensional
surface.
Map Projections
Map projection is a mathematically described
technique of how to represent the Earth’s
curved surface on a flat map.
• Conformal projections
preserve shape and angle, but strongly
distort area in the process. They are very
useful for navigation, topography
(elevation), and weather maps.
• Equal-area projections
the size of any area on the map is in true
proportion to its size on the earth. In other
words, countries’ shapes may appear to
be squished or stretched compared to
what they look like on a globe, but their
land area will be accurate relative to other
land masses.
• Equidistant projection,
distances between certain points are
preserved i.e. scales are maintained
along these points.
• Conic projection
the axis of cone in general coincides with
the polar axis.
a) Equidistant conic - In the projection,
the parallels are spaced equally and
thus the north- south distances are
maintained.
b) Lambert conformal conic: In the
projection central parallels are
spaced more closely. The shapes are
preserved in both small and large-
scale maps.
c) Albers equal area conic: In the
projection the spacing of parallels in
the northern and southern edges are
more closely spaced in central
parallels. The areas are preserved.
• Cylindrical projection
In cylindrical projection, the axis of the
cylinder coincides, oblique or
perpendicular to the polar axis. When
axis is perpendicular to the polar axis, the
projection is called transverse projection.
a) Mercator projection: This is
commonly used projection. In the
projection, the axis of cylinder
coincides with the polar axis. The
equator is line of tangency.
b) Transverse Mercator: In the
projection, the axis of cylinder is
perpendicular to the polar axis. The
cylinder touches along a meridian to
the sphere or spheroid or intersects
along lines parallel to the meridian
• Planar projection
In planar projection, a plane is used as
projection object. Plane touches pole,
equator or any other point on sphere or
spheroid. The projections are called
polar, equatorial, or oblique respectively.
a) Polar projection: In the projection,
parallels are concentric circles and
meridians are straight lines
originating from focus.
Other Projections
• Sinusoidal projection
The projection is pseudo cylindrical
projection. In the projection all parallels
and central meridian are straight lines.
• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
The projection is Transverse Mercator,
with parameter defined for 120 zones in
earth. Globe is divided in to 120 zones
(60 each for northern and southern
globes) of 6 deg each.
• Polyconic
Polyconic is a special type of conic map
projection. The projection parameters are
varied continually as parallel changes.
 CONTOUR INTERPRETATION
Contours
Are lines on a map that joins places of the same
height above sea level. Contours make patterns
showing the relief or shape of land.
Types of Contours
1) Index Contours
• A contour is shown by a heavier line
at regular intervals on a topographic
map. These heavier lines which are
normally twice the gauge of the
standard contours are called index
contours.
• Usually drawn every fifth contour and
carry the contour number or elevation
designation.
• Index contour is broken along
portions of the line and the contour
number indicated accordingly.
(When the interval is 5m, contours
whose elevations are multiples of 25
meters are shown heavy. When the
interval is 20m, the index contours
have elevations that are multiples of
100m.)
2) Intermediate Contours
Intermediate contours are lighter weights
contours found between the index
contours.
• These lines are not usually labeled
except where the terrain is relatively
flat and their elevations are not
readily obvious.
• In certain portions of the map where
the intermediate contours are so
closely spaced as to nearly unite or
merge into a single line, it is standard
practice for readability not to portray
the lines for short distances. This
technique is called feathering
3) Supplemental Contours
• Supplemental contours are drawn as
dashed lines or lines of dots that
begin and end when they approach
the areas where the regular contours
close in on each other.
4) Depression Contours
• Depression contours are drawn to
show low spots such as excavations
around which contours close.
• The symbol used is the index or
intermediate contour to which ticks
are drawn perpendicular to the
contour line on the downhill side.
5) Approximate Contours
• Approximate contours are used when
contour accuracy cannot be
determined. The areas may be
inaccessible on the ground or it may
be difficult to interpret contours from
aerial photographs when heavy
clouds or shadows occur.
Contour Interval
• Constant vertical distance between two
adjacent contour lines.
• In the design of topographic maps, the
contour interval is commonly fixed at
multiples of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and
100m.
• For general types of terrain, the contour
interval used may be as follows:
- Flat to gently rolling: 1-5m
- Hilly: 5-20m
- Mountainous: 25-100m
Selection of Contour Interval
Factors to be considered in planning and
designing the contour interval to be used for
topographic map:
1. Relative Costs – The time and expense of
field and office work is given important
consideration. The smaller the interval, the
greater is the amount of field work, reduction,
and plotting required in the preparation of the
map.
2. Purpose of the Map – When the map is to be
utilized for the detailed design of engineering
constructions or for the measurement of
earthworks quantities, close contouring will be
required.
3. Nature of the Terrain – Rugged terrain will
require a larger interval than gentle and rolling.
To portray adequately flat ground a relatively
small interval must be specified.
4. Scale of the Map – contour interval should be
in inverse ratio to the scale of the map. If the
map scale is reduced, the interval must be
increased.
Interpolation
The process of locating contour lines
proportionally on the map between plotted
points.
Methods in Locating Contour Lines by
Interpolation
1. By Estimation
• This method is suitable on small-scale
maps where the ground form is too
irregular.
• The first step is to make a careful study
of the positions of the contour points
and try to visualize the changes in
slope of the terrain. Then the contours
which appear to be most located by
the plotted points are drawn.
• Usually the index contours are drawn
first and are used guides in drawing
the intermediate contours.
• This process of interpolating is fast
and produce results which are
reasonable if extreme care is
exercised, and if supplemented by
mental computations.
 2. Rubber Band Method - Coordinate Method
• The rubber band selected should be - Controlling-point Method
sufficiently wide such that - Cross-profile Method
graduations at equal intervals can be - Photogrammetric Method
marked on it to form an elastic scale.
• It is stretched between two plotted Slope
points so that these points fall at • The rate of rise and fall of the ground
scale divisions corresponding to their surface. Slope can be described as steep
elevations. or gentle.
3. Analytical Method 𝐷𝐸
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
• Arithmetical computations are 𝐻𝐷
employed where high accuracy is Where:
desired in locating contour lines. This DE = difference in elevation between A and B
method is well suited for drawing HD = horizontal distance between the same
large-scale maps. two points
• Distances between points of known
elevations are measured and the • Slope is always measured relative to the
location of contour points are horizontal and depends on the
determined by proportion. relationship of vertical distance to
• Based on the principle that the ratio horizontal distance between any two
of the horizontal length of a line to the points on the ground.
difference in elevation between its
extremities is the same ratio of the Methods of Expressing Slope
horizontal distance between either 1) Percent or Grade
extremity and any intermediate point most common method of expressing
on the line to the difference in slope is in percent. The slope is
elevation between the selected calculated by dividing by 100 to get the
extremity and the intermediate point. slope in percent. A plus or minus sign
must be given to indicate if the slope is
ℎ𝑚 𝐻 𝑑𝑒 rising or falling.
𝑑𝑒
= 𝐷𝐸 and ℎ𝑚 = 𝐷𝐸 (𝐻) 𝐷𝐸
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = (100%)
𝐻𝐷
4. Triangle Scale Method
• The method of interpolating points by 2) Degrees
using an engineer’s scale and a slope may be expressed as the angle in
triangle is an application of the degrees that a line makes with the
geometric method of dividing a line horizontal.
𝐷𝐸
into a convenient number of equal 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
parts. 𝐻𝐷
5. Template Method 3) Gradient
• Graphical devices are used for slope for gradient is determined by
interpolating contour lines between dividing the difference in elevation by the
plotted positions. One such device is horizontal distance and expressing the
the contour template. numerator as one unit.
𝐷𝐸
• Contour Template 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
- consists of a series of equally 𝐻𝐷
spaced parallel lines that are 4) Mils
drawn on transparent film or unit of measurement that equals to
paper using any specified scale. 1/6400 0f a circle. Ninety degrees equals
1,600 mils. To determine the slope in
Methods of Obtaining Contours mils, the expression DE/HD is simply
1) Direct Method – are those in which the multiplied by 1000.
contours to be plotted are traced out in 𝐷𝐸
the field. 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = (1000)
𝐻𝐷
a. Trace-contour Method
5) Grads
the slope is determined like that of slope
2) Indirect Method – comprise those in
in degrees with the value of 63.7 used
which the points located as regards
instead of 57.3. A grad is a unit of angular
position and elevation are not necessarily
measurement based on the centesimal
situated on the contours to be shown, but
system. 1 grad = 1/400 of a circle
serve, on being plotted, as a basis for the 𝐷𝐸
interpolation of the required contours. 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = (63.7)
𝐻𝐷