Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53

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Journal of Ethnic Foods

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Original Article

Jongka, the traditional Korean family: Exploring jongka food in the

context of Korean food categories
Chang Hyeon Lee, Young Kim*
National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, South Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Background: Jongka food is the implementation of banka food in jongka, where in banka food stems from
Received 28 February 2018 royal cuisine that has been passed on to yangban (nobleman) family. Jongka food is historically passed
Accepted 28 February 2018 down, and connects different time periods between generations in the same spatial context of jongka, is a
Available online 2 March 2018
traditional Korean family system, where the eldest sons have kept their family lineage alive through
generations dating over 400 years since the mid-Chosun era. Jongka bulcheonwi stems from Korea;
Keywords:
however, its Confucian ceremonial culture now only remains in Korea.
Ancestral ritual food
Methods: This study examines the concept and formation process of jongka, and introduces everyday
Bulcheonwi
Category family food, as well as old cookbooks that contain their recipes. The bulcheonwi ceremony table-setting
Jongka and ancestral ritual food, as seen in actual jongka sites, are also described.
Jongka food Results: This study has examined 6 types of food in six different jongka houses, passed down through
Korean food jongbu, were analyzed. Thus, the importance of discovering more jongka food, and recording such
findings, is emphasized. Moreover, the bulcheonwi ancestral ritual food table setting through three-
dimensional maps and a layout plan from two jongka ispresented. Pyeon (䭏) and jeok (炙), which are
parts of ancestral ritual food, and carry different meanings for different families, were introduced, pre-
senting examples from four jongka. Moreover, existing literature was assessed to identify the sources of
jeok building principles and theoretical backgrounds.
Conclusion: Jongson and jongbu have protected the jongtaek (noble house), and inherited their family’s
foods by living by bongjesa (奉祭祀) and jeopbinkaek (接賓客). It is important to continuously discover
and record of jongka and ancestral ritual foods used in bulcheonwi. This study aims to allow society to
perceive jongka as a unique Korean cultural heritage that all of society protects and shares, instead of
regarding them as families with old histories. (For further clarification on the terms mentioned in this
article, please see “Supplementary file”.)
© 2018 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Food embodies the lives, actions, and spirits of a country's

Korea is a nation on a peninsula located in Northeast Asia. It is
connected to the Chinese seas to the west and the continent that
houses China to the north, and thus, has long been influenced by
Chinese culture. However, in this process, Korea has formed its own
unique history and culture throughout the era of the Chosun dy-
nasty and its modern days. Its food culture has been fundamentally
unique from China [1].
* Corresponding author. National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural
Development Administration, 166 Nongsaengmyeong-ro, Iseo-myeon, Wanju-gun,
Jeollabuk-do, 55365, South Korea.
E-mail address: kimyoung@korea.kr (Y. Kim).
citizens, taking form as the food of a nation. Therefore, the entire
food culture of Korea can be termed the Korean food, of which
diversity is a leading characteristic. A table is set with a diverse
range of side dishes that surround bap (cooked rice) and kuk
(dishes with broth). The clear divisions of four seasons have
allowed Koreans to grow a diverse range of seasonal vegetables.
Moreover, fermented foods such as kimchi (fermented vegetable),
jeotgal (fermented fish products), kochujang (red pepper paste),
doenjang (fermented soybean paste), and kanjang (fermented
soybean seasoning) are developed to cover for shortfalls in food
quantity [1]. This diversity allowed for the division of Korean food
into different forms. It is impossible to strictly define the
boundaries of categories of Korean food depending on the criteria
and form. However, there are a number of terminologies used to

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.006
2352-6181/© 2018 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53
refer Korean food. For example, these categories include royal
cuisine, banka (nobleman house) food, jongka food, traditional
food, and local food. These terms have some similarities, and as
they are rooted in Korean food, they cannot be explained while
leaving out other terminologies.
During the era of Chosun dynasty (1392e1910), the society was
divided into the royal family, yangban (nobleman), and peasant
classes. As the living styles and cultures differed by each class, their
food also manifested differently [2]. The royal cuisine, eaten by the
royal family, developed the most in the sovereign Chosun. Feasts
were held in the palaces, with the leftover materials, foods, and
cooking methods passed onto the yangban families, developing into
banka food. Starting in the mid-Chosun dynasty, the political in-
fluence of yangbans grew and powers formed around different
schools of thought and ideologies. The banka food of the yangban
families settled into jongka food, as jongka was formed with bul-
cheonwi status. For the peasants who had little to do with political
powers, their food mainly focused on what they grew, developing
into local food. Local food is a type of food that has been preferred
by the people of a specific region over at least 100 years, and that
later becomes recognized as traditional food as historicity develops
around it [3].
Ultimately, jongka food refers to the food that settled in the
yangban class and is the link between the royal palace and banka.
On the other hand, it also has elements of spatially defined local
food, as the food utilizes the agricultural produce of a region, in an
era where regional powers had been divided. Moreover, local-
style jongka food has also been passed down through
generations, comprising traditional food with its temporality and
historicity. Jongka food is also a type of food that has been passed
down, and connects different time periods between generations.
As such, it is also called naerim (pass-down) food.
To date, Korea has achieved a high level of industrialization, and
focused on productivity for rapid economic growth. Productivity,
which has always been Korea's objective, blocked the development
of diversity. The study of Korean food was also focused on growth,
concentrating on the present and the future. However, Korea has
begun to realize that growth needs to be built on the traditions and
histories of the past. Therefore, this study aims to expand on the
diversity of Korean food by studying jongka food, which has not
been researched to date and bestow new values on Korean food
cultures.
1.1. Jongka, the Korean traditional family system
The era of Chosun dynasty, with over 500 years of history,
was based on Confucianism and neo-Confucianism at the core of
its rule. Jongka (宗家) refers to the familial construction of the
noble families (士大夫家) of Chosun, which was based on the
jongbeop system (宗法制度) of the Zhou Dynasty of China [4].
After the mid-Chosun dynasty, jongka became the traditional
house system passed down for generations. The Korean dictio-
nary defines jongka as “the house of the head of a family as
according to the family tree” [5]. Jongson and jongbu, who
continued the history of jongka, look to the two principles of
bongjesa (奉祭祀), hosting the ancestral rites, as well as jeop-
binkaek (接賓客), tending to guests who visit the jongtaek (jongka
house), and protects the family.
According to a recent report, there were 1,153 jongka in Korea.
On a regional basis, 43.8% of the jongka, or 505 of them, are in
Kyeongsang-do. This was followed by 220 in the Seoul and
Kyeongki-do (19.1%), 172 in Chungcheong-do (14.9%), 164 in
Chonla-do (14.2%), 68 in Kangwon-do (5.9%), and 24 in Jeju-do
(2.1%) [6].
41
1.2. Bulcheonwi ancestral rites and food passed down over
hundreds of years
To highlight the achievements of celebrated scholars in the
Chosun dynasty, the king awarded siho (posthumous name, 諡號)
[7]. After an individual has received siho, their ancestors keep the
shinju (mortuary tablet) of the awarded ancestor, refusing to move
the tablet even after four generations, and offer ancestral rites.
These are the bulcheonwi (不遷位) ancestral rites [8,9] (Fig. 2). The
Bulcheonwi ancestral rites were born out of ancient China; however,
China no longer engages in this practice. It has been passed onto
Korea, and remains the only active Confucianist ceremony still
performed today [10]. Currently, the majority of jongka houses are
pajongka (派宗家), with the bulcheonwi ancestors as the jungsijo (中
始祖). They were formed around sajok (士族), for the purposes of
defining regional identities and the differentiation of yehak (禮學)
in the 16e17th centuries [11]. (see Fig. 1)
The ceremonial culture of Chosun has continued to linger to the
modern day, with jongka houses at its core. In particular, with the
basic virtues of bongjesa and jeopbinkaek, the ritual food for the
ancestors also developed. Jongka houses hold more than 10
ancestral rites per year, with kijesa (忌祭祀), which honors ances-
tors for up to four generations, bulcheonwi ancestral rites, and in the
new year, dano (surit-nal; Korean festival), hansik, and chuseok.
Among these rites, bulcheonwi rites are attended by more people,
and have more food on the table of ancestral ritual food, which
refers to all foods on the aforementioned table. These are placed on
the table under certain guidelines by the descendants of a house to
properly honor their ancestors. Types of ancestral ritual food are
diverse, including ban (飯), kaeng (羹), myeon (麵), pyeon (䭏),
pyeoncheong (䭏淸), tang (湯), jeok (炙), po (脯), jeon (煎), sukchae (熟
菜), chimchae (沈菜), hae (醢), hye (醯), silkwa (實果), jokwa (造果),
and jeongkwa (正果) [12]. These foods are characterized with spe-
cial and significant meanings in the names, materials, and cooking
methods, unlike everyday food. The different houses, the main
houses of the surnames, regions of residence, hakmaek (學脈), the
academic relationship between a teacher and his student, and
honban (婚班), referring to the marriages between influential
houses, act on the different attributes of food, and strengthen their
symbolic meanings. In the interconnectedness of various attributes
that are diversely connected, ancestral ritual food creates honor
that differs by the family (家家禮, different customs of every family)
with different names and stories contained within them [12].
2. Jongka food and records for the next generation
2.1. Jongka food passed down through generations from jongbu
The jongbu of jongka, based on agricultural societies, typically
grow their own produce to be used for cooking. The basic in-
gredients are laced with the efforts and care of jongbu, such as
growing beans for jang (fermented soybean products) or rice for
alcohol. It is with these ingredients that their mothers-in-law
taught them how to make traditional fermented food, such as
jang, alcohol, cho, jangajji (pickled vegetable), and kimchi, and their
own experiences are molded into what is now the food cooking
techniques of their own houses. However, jongbu continues to
make food in a non-scientific method that relies on their experi-
ence and memory with eyeballed measurements and their senses,
rather than measuring the ingredients and condiments.
To classify between everyday food, consumed on a daily basis,
and jongka food, the researcher has applied the following criteria:
first, food that has been passed down for more than two genera-
tions through jongbu; second, food created with domestic in-
gredients (excluding fusion food made with foreign ingredients and
42 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53

Fig. 1. Jongka is a traditional Korean family system where the eldest sons have kept their family lineage alive through generations for more than 400 years since the mid-Chosun era.
Jongson and jongbu, live by the two principles of bongjesa (奉祭祀) and jeopbinkaek (接賓客), tending to guests who visit the jongtaek and protects the family. (A) Jongtaek of “Hoejae
Lee Eonjeok jongka of the Yeoju Lee family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Kyeongju-si. It is registered on the UNESCO World Heritage system. (B) Jongtaek of “Imkyeongdang Kim Yeol
jongka of the Kangneung Kim family” from Kangwon-do, Kangneung-si ©AZA Studio. (C) “Cheongamjung,” a gazebo of the “Chungjae Kwon Beol jongka of the Andong Kwon family”
from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Bonghwa-gun ©AZA Studio. (D) The Soteuldaemun (front door) of the jongtaek of “Dongkye Jeong On jongka of the Chokye Jeong family” from Kyeong-
sangnam-do, Geochang-gun.

Fig. 2. Bulcheonwi (不遷位) means “unmovable ancestral tablet”. This tradition was born out of ancient China; however, China no longer engages in this practice. It has been passed
onto Korea and remains the only case of Confucianist ceremonies to date. The ceremonial cultures of Chosun have continued to linger to the modern day founded on the principles
of Confucianism and neo-Confucianism, with jongka houses at its core. (A) Moving the ancestral tablet (出主) of the ancestor from the shrine. When ancestral rites are not held in the
shrine, the ancestral tablets are moved. (B) Jipsabunjeong (執事分定), which records the role of jekwan, who attends the bulcheonwi ancesetral rites. (C) Bulcheonwi rites of the “Seoae
Ryu Seongryong jongka of the Pungsan Ryu family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Andong-si ©AZA Studio. (D) The shrine (祠堂) of “Kosan Yun Seondo jongka of the Haenam Yun” from
Chonlanam-do, Haenam-gun ©AZA Studio.
 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53 43

cooking methods); third, food that contains the story of the house;
fourth, food created with local agricultural and indigenous prod-
ucts; fifth, food that is referred to by special names (dialects) in the
originating region or house; and sixth, food that is made with
cooking methods that are comparable to those found in the ancient
cookbooks by era. Based on these six criteria, this study aims to
explain six jongka foods from six jongka houses used on the tables
of guests under their virtue of jeopbinkaek.
The selected jongka food are suranchae of “Dongkye Jeong On
jongka of the Chokye Jeong family (referred below as ‘Dongkye
jongka’)” from Kyeongsangnam-do, Geochang-gun, muneosukhoe of
“Karam Lee Hyeon-il jongka of the Jaeryeong Lee family (‘Karam
jongka’)” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yeongdeok-gun, kaji-bulgogi
from “Chunujae Kwon Jin jongka of the Andong Kwon family (‘Chu-
nujae jongka’)” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yecheon-gun, bandong-
chimi of “Cheongjaekongpa Park Jong jongka of the Milyang Park
family (‘Cheongjaekongpa jongka’)” from Chonlanam-do, Naju-si,
modeum-jeongkwa of “Hakbong Kim Seong-il jongka of the Uiseong
Kim family (‘Hakbong jongka’)” from Kyeongnsagbuk-do, Andong-si,
and Andong-sikhye of “Chokan Kwon Munhae jongka of the Yecheon
Kwon family (‘Chokan jongka’)” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yecheon-
gun.
The jongbu (born in 1947) of the Dongkye jongka inherited her
cooking skills from her mother-in-law, of the famous Kyeongju Choi
family, and her mother, who is the jongbu of the “Jeongjae jongka” of
Andong-si. Among various recipes, she learned suranchae (poached
egg), which is a dish involving the whites of a poached egg cooked
in boiling water, and eaten with sour pine nut sauce, along with
different vegetables. The top-quality ingredients of suranchae,
which include octopus and king crab meat, make it one of the best
dishes to serve guests who visit kotaek (jongka house). The sour-
seasoned pine nut sauce acts to pique the appetite before the
actual meal. It is a luxurious dish where the five colors of green
water parsley, red peppers, black manna lichen, white pine nut
sauce, and the yellow parts of the egg that are popped prior to
eating are harmoniously arranged (Fig. 3A).
Muneosukhoe (blanched fresh octopus) is typically boiled in
water. However, the muneosukhoe cooked by the jongbu (born in
1949) of the “Karam jongka” is cooked by placing the octopus on top
of sliced onions in a steamer. The onion broth that comes out when
it is steamed helps to soften the octopus. The muneosukhoe dish is
served with sour seasoning sauce (Fig. 3B).
The kaji-bulgogi (grilled eggplant with soy sauce) of “Chunujae
jongka,” which is prepared by cutting eggplants grown in a vegetable
garden near jongtaek (jongka house), cooked in an oiled pan, and
served with soy sauce condiments, is a quintessential dish that the
jongbu (born in 1949) serves to her guests. The name was chosen due
to the marriage of slightly cooked eggplant on a pan and the accom-
panying soy sauce condiments being similar to bulgogi (thin sliced of
beef marinated in a soy sauce). The grilled eggplant and soy sauce
condiments are prepared separately and are served together right
before the meal. If the soy sauce condiments are put on the dish be-
forehand, the eggplant releases water, leading to an undesirable
texture (Fig. 3C).
The bandongchimi (radish water kimchi) of the “Cheongjae-
kongpa jongka” is a type of kimchi that represents the jongka; it is
sweetened with pear, Naju's specialty, and croaker fish is added to
give the kimchi that refreshing taste. The name, bandongchimi, is
attributed to different folkloresdwhere it is in the middle (半) of
baechu-kimchi (cabbage kimchi) and dongchimi; it is a type of kimchi

Fig. 3. Dishes served to guests at jongka: (A) Suranchae of “Dongkye Jeong On jongka of the Chokye Jeong family” from Kyeongsangnam-do, Geochang-gun ©AZA Studio. (B)
Muneosukhoe and sour seasoning sauce from “Karam Lee Hyeon-il jongka of the Jaeryeong Lee family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yeongdeok-gun. (C) Kaji-bulgogi from “Chunujae Kwon
Jin jongka of the Andong Kwon family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yecheon-gun. (D) Bandongchimi from “Cheongjaekongpa Park Jong jongka of the Milyang Park family” from Chon-
lanam-do, Naju-si ©AZA Studio. (E) Modeum-jeongkwa (yakkwa, bak, keumkyul and pine nuts, burdock and peanuts, dried persimmon and pine nuts, pyeonkang, and songhwa-dasik)
from “Hakbong Kim Seong-il jongka of the Uiseong Kim family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Andong-si. (F) Andong-sikhye from “Chokan Kwon Munhae jongka of the Yecheon Kwon family”
from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yecheon-gun.
44 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53

eaten during winter solstice, which is in the middle of winter and
the new year; or it is kimchi of ban-(班家; banka). Nevertheless, the
exact origin is unknown [13]. The jongbu (born in 1951) teaches the
residents of the region at the “Naju Local Food Culture Experience
Center” (Fig. 3D).
The modeum-jeongkwa (braised sweet sauce combination) of
the “Hakbong jongka” comprises food placed on the table of re-
freshments, served to guests with tea. The seven types of mod-
eum-jeongkwa includes yakkwa (deep fried honey cookies), which
is made by frying flour batter and resting it in honey; bak-
jeongkwa (sweet gourd jelly), which has a circular shape, and is
made with gourd with its skin removed; keumkyul-jeongkwa
(sweet kumquat jelly), which involves removing the seeds from a
kumquat and placing pine nuts where the seeds were; ueong-
jeongkwa (sweet burdock jelly), which involves thinly slicing
burdock and surrounding peanuts with the slices; kotkam-
jeongkwa (sweet dried persimmon jelly), which involves the cut-
ting of dried persimmon, flattening it out into a circular shape and
decorating it with pine nuts; pyeonkang (sliced dried ginger),
which involves the cutting of ginger, boiling the pieces down in
sugar, and drying them; and songhwa-dasik, which involves the
mixing honey with the powder of the flowers of the pine and
pressing it in a honey-cake mold. Jongbu (born in 1941) makes a
variety of jeongkwa using seasonal ingredients, keeping them in a
separate fridge to serve her guests (Fig. 3E).
The jongbu of “Chokan jongka,” whose parents are from Andong-
si, brings out the Andong-sikhye (sweet rice punch) that her mother
taught her. Andong-sikhye has a peculiar taste, as the broth is made
with red pepper powder and includes white radish and ginger. It is
a winter drink of the Andong region, typically served as digestion
medicine on days of feasts, when over-eating is common (Fig. 3F).
2.2. Old cookbooks containing records of jongka food
The oldest cookbook on jongka food is “Suunjapbang (需雲雜方),”
which has been in the possession of “Seolwoldang (雪月堂) Kim Bu-
ryun (金富倫, 1531e1598) of the Kwangsan Kim family” from
Kyeongsangbuk-do, Andong-si for over 450 years. “Suunjapbang”
can be interpreted to mean “a diverse range of methods of cooking
food of high esteem.” This book was written by Takcheongjeong (濯
淸亭) Kim Yu (金綏, 1491e1555), father of Kim Bu-ryun, in two
volumes around 1540, with the copied version in Chinese charac-
ters still in existence. It contains 59 different types of alcohol, 17
types of kimchi, nine types of fermented sauce, five types of vine-
gars, two types of noodles and 29 other types of food, containing
121 recipes. It is of high value, as it was written by a male
scholar and not by a woman, as women were in charge of food in
the Chosun dynasty with strict gender role divisions.
Next, “Eumsikdimibang (閨壼是議方),” which is the first known
cookbook to be written in Korean, is the cookbook of “Seokkye (石
溪) Lee Si-myeong (李時明, 1590e1674) jongka of the Jaeryung Lee
family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yeongyang-gun. Andong Jang (張
桂香, 1589e1680), the wife of Lee Si-myeong, wrote it in Korean
around 1670. “Eumsikdimibang” means “how to understand the
taste of food” and contains 146 recipes, including 18 types of myeon
and byeong, 74 types of fish and meat, and 54 types of jukukbang-
mun (Fig. 4A).
Along with “Suunjapbang” and “Eumsikdimibang,” the last of the
three jongka cookbook is “Onjubeop (蘊酒法),” whose author is
unknown. This book is the Korean copy of 130 recipes, including 57
methods of making alcohol and three methods of making yeast. It
has been passed down in the “Cheongkye (靑溪) Kim Jin (金璡,
1500e1580) jongka of the Uiseong Kim family,” from Kyeongsang-
buk-do, Andong-si. It provides insight into the food and drinking
cultures of the noble families in the Kyeongsangbuk-do, Andong
region around late 1700s [14].
“Choi's Eumsikbeop,” written in pure Korean, understood to have
been written in the same timeframe as “Eumsikdimibang,” is the
cookbook of Chungcheong-do. “Choi's Eumsikbeop” is thought to be
written before 1660 by Haeju Choi (1591e1660), the wife of “Hakok
(霞谷) Maeng Se-hyeong (孟世衡, 1588e1656) jongka of the Shin-
chang Maeng family,” from Chungcheongnam-do, Asan-si. “Choi's
Eumsikbeop” is one of the documents contained in “Jasonbojeon (子
孫寶傳),” a collection of 34 Korean sujeok (手迹) recorded over 270
years by women of the Haeju Choi; it contains 20 recipes [15]. This
book is thought to be a collection of recipes learned from the actual
experience of making food instead of copying recipes of others
(Fig. 4B).
Other cookbook from Chungcheong-do include “Jusiksiui (酒食
是儀)” and “Ueumjebang (禹飮諸方)” in the “Dongchundang (同春堂)

Fig. 4. Old cookbooks containing records of jongka food. (A) “Eumsikdimibang” (閨壼是議方, written around 1670), the cookbook of “Seokkye Lee Si-myeong jongka of the Jaeryeong
Lee family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yeongyang-gun. The cover says “Kyukonsiuibang” and contains 146 recipes. © Academy of Korean Studies. (B) “Choi's eumsikbeop” (崔氏飮食法,
written prior to 1660) of “Hakok Maeng Se-hyeong jongka of the Shinchang Maeng family” from Chungcheongnam-do, Asan-si, containing 20 recipes. © World Institute of Kimchi. (C)
“Jusiksiui” (酒食是儀, 19th century), a Korean cookbook of “Dongchundang Song Jun-kil jongka of the Eunjin Song family,” containing 99 recipes. © Daejeon Historical Museum.
 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53
Song Jun-kil (宋浚吉, 1606e1673) jongka of the Eunjin Song family” in
the Daejeon Metropolis. “Jusiksiui” means “the correct formalities
of drinking and eating,” and was written in Korean in the 19th
century by the wife of the 9th generation descendant of Song Jun-kil,
Song Young-no (宋永老, 1803e1881), Yeonan Lee. Its contents
include 99 eumsikbeop (飮食法; recipes), such as jjim, myeon, juk,
jang, kimchi, and alcohol, as well as the wisdom required in life, and
how to deal with ingredients (Fig. 4C). “Ueumjebang” is also a
Korean collection of alcohol recipes, containing 24 different
methods of making alcohol and written over multiple generations
since the 19th century [16]. “Hwayang ipjubang,” contained in
“Jusiksiui,” is the recipe for a chrysanthemum wine that is consid-
ered to be the family wine of “Dongchundang jongka” that was
introduced to the public as the official drink of the WACS World
Congress Daejeon, held in 2012. The jongbu was registered as the
owner of the Daejeon Cultural Heritage in 2016 for her traditional
alcohol brewing methods, with their preservation value considered
to be very high.
Another cookbook from Chungcheong-do is “Eumsikbangmun
(飮食方文),” passed down in the “Yakcheon (藥泉) Cho Kye-won (趙
啟遠, 1592e1670) jongka of the Yangju Cho family” in Chung-
cheongnam-do, Hongseong-gun. This cookbook was written by his
wife, Jeon-ui Lee (1867e1938), containing 69 recipes, including 15
types of liquor, 20 types of tteok and kwajeong, 25 types of sides,
and 10 other recipes in the year of Shinmyo (辛卯年, thought to be
1891). The cookbook was renamed by the descendants, adding
“-nira” to the name “Eumsikbangmun,” republishing the cookbook
as “Eumsikbangmunnira” [17], and is recognized in the academic
circles as evidence of recipes from late Chosun in the 19th century
and understanding the Chungcheong-do dialect.
2.3. Present state of jongka food research
Jongka ancestral ritual food is an important research topic that
gives insight into the history and traditions of Korean food
cultures; it is a “continuing value” that needs to be passed down
through generations with a firm foundation. Despite the high
preservation value of jongka ancestral ritual food, it has been
rather thinly covered as an aspect of food within the Confucianist
ancestral rites often covered in cultural anthropology and folklore
studies as late as the 1980s [18]. Beginning with the comparative
study of bulcheonwi ancestral ritual food in jongka houses located
in the Kyeongsangbuk-do, Andong region by Yoon [19,20] 21 years
ago, jongka ancestral ritual food began to comprise a domain of
Korean food culture studies. This was followed by National
Research Institute of Cultural Heritage under the Cultural Heritage
Administration, which published the 16-volume “Jongka Ancestral
Ritual Formalities and Food,” covering the traditional jerye pro-
cess, ancestral ritual food on the ancestral rites, and recipes of 27
jongka families, between 2003 and 2008 [21]. Moreover, the
jongka lifestyle, stories of food that were passed down in gener-
ations, and the lives of jongson and jongbu have been covered in
food magazines and books in easy-to-approach writing styles,
rather than difficult academic terms, drawing interest from
academia and the public [22e25].
The research areas of jongka ancestral ritual food have since
expanded to cover areas from humanities to natural sciences, as
studies now show compar are ancestral ritual food presented on
bulcheonwi ancestral rite tables [9], the basis of eating, component
analysis on the ingredients that are associated with special stories
[26], and the functionalities and effects of such foods [27]. Recently,
the majority of studies have focused on the utilization of social
research techniques, such as exploring the historical values of in-
dividual ancestral ritual food through ancient texts and the re-
searchers visiting jongka sites to understand the families and
45
conducting in-depth interviews with family members [27e29]. In
particular, the exploration of recipes, symbolic meanings of each of
the ancestral ritual foods and uncovering of the stories of families
as they are contained in the dishes now play important roles in
strengthening the basis for research.
Since 2010, the study of jongka food has been spearheaded by
professional research institutions. In 2010, the Rural Development
Administration held “Jongka and Jongka Food: from passing down to
sharing,” in 2010 and the “Jongka and Myeongka Food Show”
themed on “the aesthetics of serving,” in 2011 at the Korean Food
Expo. Between 2010 and 2017, the Rural Development Administra-
tion discovered 2,200 recipes of jongka food from 140 families, and
systemized 184 recipes [30]. Moreover, they have also published
booklets and created the stories behind 89 jongka houses and 257
jongka food recipes that they had researched through the Agricul-
tural Food Information System (http://Koreanfood.rda.go.kr).
“Table-setting for the heavens, the earth and people, Jongka
food,” published by the Rural Development Administration, orga-
nizes the research results of jongka and jongka food into six sub-
jects. It introduced 27 jongka houses, with five in “Serving, table
setting with ancestral rites to honor the ancestors,” seven in
“Caring, table-setting to return parental love,” six in “Sharing,
table-setting for guests when sharing prosperity,” five in “Filling,
table-setting for alcohol brewed with care,” and four in “Sharing,
table-setting for filled with heart,” and presented home-cooked
style table setting using jongka food, with the subject of “home-
cooked food, healthy table with jongka food”.
Moreover, “100 recipes of jongka food” focused on the preser-
vation of records, uncovering new jongka between 2014 and 2016,
and standardizing the recipes for jongka food from each jongka. The
number of jongka in each different region in this book, and the
number of jongka food recipes are as follows: 13 in Seoul and
Kyeongki-do, with 25 recipes; two in Kangwon-do, with three
recipes; six in Chungcheong-do, with eight recipes; 21 in Chonla-do
and 33 recipes; and 18 jongka in Kyeongsang-do, with 31 recipes.
This total to, 60 jongka houses, with 100 recipes.
Despite the information on jongka and systemized jongka food
cooking methods, there have been limitations of accessibility, as the
food could only be enjoyed at the said jongka, distancing them from
the public. To overcome such limitations on jongka food, and
expand further, jongka food now requires industrialization through
popularization.
3. Bulcheonwi ancestral ritual food in accordance with the
honoring the family
3.1. Background of bulcheonwi ancestral ritual food
The settlement of ceremonies in Chosun began with the intro-
duction of “Karye (家禮)”. “Karye” refers to a book of customary
formalities (禮) that must be kept at home, as well as Kwanhon-
sangje (冠婚喪祭) written by Zhou He (朱熹, 1130e1200), a scholar
from the Southern Song Dynasty in the 12th century. He was
referred to as Zhou Ja (朱子) after his death by those who admired
him. “Karye” was written by Zhou Ja and thus became Jujakarye (朱
子家禮); as his siho was Mun (文), it is also referred to as Mun-
kongkarye (文公家禮). “Karye” is thought to have entered Chosun
through the new nobleman families along with neo-Confucianism
near the end of Koryeo Dynasty [31,32] as the society changed
from the Buddhist Koryeo to the Confucianist Chosun. This “Juja-
karye” was accepted as something that nobleman must adhere to
until the beginning of the 17th century [33]. However, these for-
malities were made to fit Chinese society, and did not match the
realities of Chosun. Therefore, there were different interpretations
for similar situations. Sarim (士林) of Jaejisajok (在地士族), which
46 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53
grew around the rural community society between 16th and early
17th century, in the midst of Chosun dynasty, began to influence
national politics. During this period, “Jujakarye” led to the rise of
Yeongnamyehak (嶺南禮學) and Gihoyehak (畿湖禮學) due to dif-
ferences in the theories and ideologies of neo-Confucianism
asserted by Lee Hwang (李滉, 1501e1570) and Lee Yi (李珥,
1536e1584) [34]. Therefore, regions, schools of thought, and
houses become important analysis criteria in the study of jongka
ancestral ritual food [12]. Kakarye (家家禮), which is the result of
such divisions, has led to different methods of preparing ancestral
ritual food and placing it on the ancestral rite tables, with different
symbolic meanings perceived by the members of jongka that have
been maintained until the present day.
3.2. Bulcheonwi ancestral ritual food table-setting case studies
To research the types of ancestral ritual food and jinseol (ar-
ranging the dishes of food, 陳設) placed on the tables during
ancestral rites, the researchers have selected “Kammukong Im Tak
jongka of the Naju Im family (Kammukong jongka)” of, Naju-si and
“Karam Lee Hyeon-il jongka of the Jaeryeong Lee family (Karam
jongka)” of Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yeongdeok-gun and conducted field
research. The researchers visited the jongka on the dates of the
lunar year bulcheonwi, preparing the ancestral ritual food together
and participating in the ancestral rite process. After obtaining the
approval of the jongson and jongbu, the process of preparing
ancestral ritual food and jinseol process of the ancestral rite tables
and table-setting were photographed.
The methods and criteria of explaining the jongka bulcheonwi
ancestral rite tables and jinseoldo (陳設圖) are as follows. First, the
bearing is such that shinwi (神位) is placed to the north and jeju (祭
主) is placed to the south. The right side of the ancestral rite table
becomes the east and the left becomes the west. Second, lines are
counted in the order starting from the shinwi direction. Based on
these criteria, the arranged ancestral ritual food will be explained
from the west to the east and from line 1 of the shinwi direction to
the last line in the jeju direction.
“Kammukong jongka” began with Kammukong (監務公) Im Tak
(林卓) settling in Hweijin-myeon, Naju-si, Chonlanam-do and is a
daejongka (大宗家) where the first-born sons (長子) have kept the
family lineage alive without any foster sons for more than 600
years. Bulcheonwi ancestral rites honored the sixth generation
descendant of Im Tak, Champankong (參判公) Im Pyeong (林枰,
1462e1522) and his wife Unyang Kim, honoring them together in
hapseol (合設) at noon on January 21, 2018 (December 5 in the lunar
year). The ancestral ritual food on the ancestral rite tables was
drawn in isometric maps and table plans, recording the jinseol, or
locations of dish arrangements (Fig. 5). While the jinseol of food is
unclear, they can be divided into five lines. Line 1 contains the rice
(飯), soup (羹) and spoons (匙), chopsticks (箸), and drinking glasses
(盞), which form the basics of table-setting, with pyeon (䭏) placed
in the east. Rice and soup are placed in the opposing order of table-
setting for the living, with rice placed on the right (west) and soup
placed on the left (east). The quintessential dish of line 2 is jeok (炙)
to the west. Also considered to be in line 2, there are five types of
tang (湯), which are dry soups that are made with boiling pork,
pomfret, corbina, shark, and croaker, respectively. Line 3 contains
jeon (煎), cooked in an oiled pan; 5 different types of kallap (kannap)
are made with pork, pomfret, corbina, shark, and croaker, respec-
tively; ground pork with egg yolk is used to make meat jeon, and
pollack is thinly sliced with egg white to make fish jeon, totaling
seven different types of jeon. Egg yolk is cooked and sliced thinly for
garnish. Line 4 contains po (脯) and bapsikhye (醯) containing or-
ange, dasik, strawberry, sanja, kangjeong, watermelon, and rice. In
line 5, chestnuts, pears, jeongkwa (balloon flower, lotus roots),
yakkwa, tomato, apple, persimmon, dried persimmon, and jujube
are placed in the order. The 15 types of kwa (果), excluding po and
bapsikhye, are placed in lines 4 and 5. Another characteristic of
“Kammukong jongka” is the creation of another smaller table in
lines 1 and 2 by placing additional side dishes along side rice and
soup. The side dishes are bracken, bean sprouts, green vegetables,
salted dry fish, meat jeon, fish jeon, dried seaweed, lightly-salted
kimchi, and cheongjang. Moreover, the usage of yellow egg yolk as
garnish for jeok, jeon, and tang are notable, and this is also a char-
acteristic of jongka ancestral ritual food in Chungcheong-do and
Chonla-do.
“Karam jongka” is jungsijo was Karam (渴巖) Lee Hyeon-il (李玄逸,
1627e1704), a scholar and academician in the late Chosun dynasty.
Bulcheonwi ancestral rites honored Karam alone in a danseol (單設)
at 08:00 p.m. on November 20, 2017 (October 3 in the lunar year).
The ancestral ritual food on the ancestral rite tables were drawn in
isometric maps and table plans, recording the jinseol or locations of
dish arrangements (Fig. 6). The jinseol of food can be divided into 4
lines. Line 1 had sijeop and myeon with flour noodles and stir-friend
eggs and beef, rice, glass, kaeng, pyeon, and pyeoncheong. The pyeon
had eight stacks of dehulled red bean steamed rice cake, one stack
of matpyeon, one stack of baekpyeon, one stack of cheongjeolpyeon,
and utki-pyeon had one stack of powdered soybean injeolmi,
bupyeon, songki-songpyeon, kkaekuri, japkwapyeon, hwajeon, and ju-
ak. Line 2 contained po, dae-yuk (beef), tang, jeok, dae-eo (fish), and
pyeonjeok. There were five types of tang, including egg, beef,
octopus, pine mushroom, and frozen pollack. The quintessential
dish of line 3 is chae (菜). They are placed in the order of cheongchae
(crown daisy, Napa cabbage), kyeomchae (taro, aster, radish,
bracken, crown daisy, and bean sprouts), cheongjang, ssam
(seaweed), chimchae (water kimchi), baekchae (white radish) and
hye (bapsikhye). Line 4 contains 10 types of kwa (果) in the order of
persimmon, jujube, chestnut, pear, apple, walnut, mandarin, pea-
nut, melon, and yakkwa. Line 4, with fruits, are typically in the order
of jujube, chestnut, pear, and persimmon; however, Karam liked
persimmon (柿), and thus persimmon is placed first. Next, this
study will cover four jongka houses, each for pyeon (䭏) and jeok
(炙), with different houses bestowing different meanings on them,
among the diverse range of ancestral ritual food.
3.3. Bulcheonwi ancestral ritual food, pyeon
Pyeon (䭏) is a term used to address rice cake [12]. It is known as
the pure Korean term for rice cake through the old cookbooks
written in Korean. Prior to the pure Korean term, Chinese influence
led to the usage of terms such as byeong (餠), ko (餻), and i (餌).
Scholars regard the 19th century as the last period of influence of
Chinese characters in Korea and uses the Korean version of the
Chinese term, 䭏 (pyeon), to refer to rice cakes [35].
Rice cakes are made by soaking nonglutinous rice or glutinous
rice, and grinding them into powder to be used as or in making
basic dough. The proportion of the main ingredient determines the
state of the dough and can also control for the chewy texture of the
rice cakes. The subingredient, which is used to color the rice cake, is
added to the dough for taste or used as a garnish and makes the
pyeon work in harmony with the main ingredient. The subing-
redients are typically regionally specific products that could be
easily found near the jongka; as such, rice cakes are also suitable for
local food. Pyeon used in ancestral ritual food can largely be divided
into two parts. They are divided into bonpyeon, which acts as the
foundation as it is piled first onto the jeokteul, and utkipyeon, which
are decorative in nature with many colors and tastes. Utkipyeon is
referred to as ujjiji in Chonla dialect, utkkaeyi, utkae, and utjjisi in
Kyeongsang dialect [36,37]. “Kyeo” is used as a unit for counting
each levels of piled pyeon in the pyeonteul [29].
 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53 47

Fig. 5. (A) Bulcheonwi Kowi and Biwi ancestral rite table-setting (January 21, 2018; December 5 of the lunar calendar) of the “Kanmukong Im Tak jongka of the Naju Im family,” of
Chonlanam-do, Naju-si. (B) Isometric drawing of the bulcheonwi ancestral rites table-setting. (C) Bulcheonwi ancestral rites table plan.
48 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53

Fig. 6. (A) Bulcheonwi Kowi ancestral rite table-setting (November 20, 2017; October 3 of the lunar calendar) of the “Karam Lee Hyeon-il jongka of Jaeryeong Lee family,” from
Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yeongduk-gun. (B) Isometric drawing of the bulcheonwi ancestral rites table-setting. (C) Bulcheonwi ancestral-rites table plan.
 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53 49

To analyze the pyeon utilized in the jongka bulcheonwi ancestral
ritual food, this study has covered “Bangchon Hwang Hui jongka of
the Jangsu Hwang family (‘Bangchon jongka’),” from Kyeongki-do,
Paju-si, “Kammukong Im Tak jongka of the Naju Im family (‘Kam-
mukong jongka’),” from Chonlanam-do, Naju-si “Seoae Ryu Seon-
gryong jongka of the Pungsan Ryu family (‘Seoae jongka’),” from
Kyeongsangbuk-do, Andong-si, and “Chungjae Kwon Beol jongka of
the Andong Kwon family (‘Chungjae jongka’)” from Kyeongsangbuk-
do, Bonghwa-gun.
The pyeon of “Bangchon jongka” has seven layers of dehulled red
bean steamed rice cake as the bonpyeon on the pyeonteul. Utkipyeon
was made of one layer of hwajeon cooked on a 15 cm width pan, and
ju-ak in the form of songpyeon. The hwajeon used as utkipyeon were
used to cover the sharper edges of the bonpyeon (Fig. 7A).
The bonpyeon of “Kammukong jongka” is made up of 19 layers,
including seven layers of dehulled red bean steamed rice cake, six
layers of powdered soybean injeolmi, and six layers of jeolpyeon.
The utkipyeon was made up of one layer of kaepi-tteok (rice cake
stuffed with bean jam) and one layer of utjjiji. As the pyeon is piled
high and may fall, it is covered in traditional Korean paper hand-
made from mulberry trees and bound with rice straws and is stored
in this manner until the ceremonial rites begin (Fig. 7B).

Fig. 7. Ancestral ritual food: pyeon. (A) Kowi and Biwi pyeon of the “Bangchon Hwang Hui jongka of the Jangsu Hwang family” from Kyeongki-do, Paju-si (March 25, 2015; February 7
of the lunar year) ©Lee et al [4]. (B) Bulcheonwi Kowi and Biwi pyeon of the “Kammukong Im Tak jongka of the Naju Im family” from Chonlanam-do, Naju-si. (C) Bulcheonwi Kowi pyeon
of "Seoae Ryu Seongryong jongka of the Pungsan Ryu family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Andong-si (June 3, 2014; May 4 of the lunar year) ©AZA Studio. (D) Bulcheonwi Kowi pyeon
(Dongkot-tteok) of the “Chungjae Kwon Beol jongka of the Andong Kwon family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Bonghwa-gun (April 22, 2017; March 26 of the lunar year) ©AZA Studio.
50 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53

The bonpyeon of “Seoae jongka” has 15 layers, with four layers of
soybean, five layers of dehulled red bean steamed rice cake, four
layers of mung beans pyeon, one layer of baekpyeon, and one layer of
namulpyeon. The utkipyeon were made up of one layer each of
powdered soybean injeolmi (yellow), jeungpyeon (white), songki-
songpyeon (red), songpyeon, ramie leaves songpyeon (blue), japk-
wapyeon (red), hwajeon (yellow), jo-yak (white), and kkaekuri
(black), with the colors distinct from each other when piling
(Fig. 7C).
The pyeon of “Chungjae jongka” is referred to as “Dongkot-tteok”.
Dongkot is a decoration used to secure the topknot and was so
named because it was similar in shape to janjeolpyeon, which
means “‘small-sliced jeolpyeon,” and is used as bonpyeon. The jan-
jeolpyeon in dongkot shape are cut and piled in a circular pyeonteul.
Typically, a larger sized bonpyeon would have 25 layers; however, as
the number of people participating in the rites has decreased, the
number of layers in the bonpyeon has now decreased to 15. There
are 11 types, including ssukjeolpyeon (blue), milbiji (white), songki-
songpyeon (red), kyeongdan (yellow), ssukdanja (blue), bupyeon
(white), japkwapyeon (red), jeon (white), sansim (white), jo-ak
(white) and kkaekuri (black). They are piled on top of bonpyeon with
one layer each.
3.4. Bulcheonwi ancestral ritual food, jeok
Jeok (炙) is a type of ancestral ritual food that uses fish or meat,
whether uncooked or cooked on fire and piled on top of jeokteul.
The main types include fish jeok (eojeok), with fish or other seafood;
meat jeok (yukjeok) with beef or pork; and chicken jeok (kyejeok),
with chicken. Jeok can be divided into various types, depending
schools of thought, region, and families, as they have different in-
gredients, piling orders, and methods of presentation on the
ancestral rite tables. This study has focused on three-jeok building
method, piling three types of jeok on one jeokteul, among the six
types defined by Lee et al [28]. Moreover, this study aims to
introduce Lee et al [28], who has discovered the origins of the term,
“three-jeok building method” and presented relevant theoretical
backgrounds.
To analyze the jeok used in the jongka bulcheonwi ancestral
ritual food, this study has presented cases with “Bangchon Hwang
Hui jongka of the Jangsu Hwang family (‘Bangchon jongka’)” from
Kyeongki-do, Paju-si, “Kosan Yun Seondo jongka of the Haenam Yun
family (‘Kosan jongka’)” from Chonlanam-do, Haenam-gun, “Karam
Lee Hyeon-il jongka of the Jaeryung Lee family (‘Karam jongka’)” from
Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yeongduk-gun, and “Toekye Lee Hwang jongka
of the Jinseong Lee family (‘Toekye jongka’)” from Kyeongsangbuk-
do, Andong-si.
The jeok of “Bangchon jongka” was piled in the order of yukjeok,
kyejeok, and eojeok on jeokteul. The yukjeok uses beef, kyejeok uses
one chicken, and eojeok uses one gray mullet, and all three jeoks
were marinated in soy sauceebased seasoning and cooked there-
after (Fig. 8A).
The jeok of “Kosan jongka” was piled in the order of eojeok and
yukjeok on jeokteul. They skipped the kyejeok, which used two
chicken legs. They also reduced the seven types of eojeok,
comprising pomfret, bass, herring, seabream, jangdae, gray mullet,

Fig. 8. Ancestral ritual food: Jeok. (A) Bulcheonwi Kowi and Biwi jeok of the “Bangchon Hwang hui jongka of the Jangsu Hwang family” from Kyeongki-do, Paju-si (March 25, 2015;
February 7 of the lunar year) ©Lee et al [25]. (B) Bulcheonwi Kowi and Biwi jeok of “Kosan Yun Seondo jongka of the Haenam Yun family” from Chonlnam-do, Haenam-gun (July 26,
2015; June 11 of the lunar year) ©Lee et al [25]. (C) Biwi jeok of “Karam Lee Hyeon-il jongka of the Jaeryung Lee family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Yeongduk-gun (January 14, 2016;
December 5 of the lunar year). (D) Bulcheonwi Kowi jeok of the “Toekye Lee Hwang jongka of the Jinseong Lee family” from Kyeongsangbuk-do, Andong-si (January 27, 2015; December
8 of the lunar year). Based on “Yeki (禮記),” an ancient Chinese document, the jeok is made with raw meat in the bulcheonwi ancestral rites as it is regarded as daehyang (大饗).
Among the cases above, “Karam jongka” (C) and ‘Toekye jongka’ (D) used raw meat.
 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53 51

and croaker into three, comprising pomfret, jangdae, and seab-

ream (Fig. 8B).
“Karam jongka” piled their jeok in the order of eojeok, yukjeok,
and kyejeok. There are 10 types of eojeok, comprising sanjeok, frozen
pollack jeon, halibut jeon, king crab, stingray, shark, halibut,
abalone, croaker, and octopus. The yukjeok uses beef, and kyejeok
uses chicken. The sanjeok, frozen pollack jeon, and halibut jeon were
cooked by covering them with pan frying powder and egg to be
cooked in a pan; there are fish jeon (煎). As the bulcheonwi ancestral
rites were held in January, when the king crab of Kyeongsangbuk-
do, Yeongdeok-gun is in season, it was also used in eojeok. Eojeok
were all cooked, and yukjeok and kyejeok were uncooked (Fig. 8C).
“Toekye jongka” piled their jeok in the order of eojeok, yukjeok,
and kyejeok. From the bottom, eojeok included stingray, shark,
yellow tail, and octopus; yukjeok uses beef, and kyejeok uses
chicken. Aside from the octopus that was cooked in boiling water,
everything was uncooked (Fig. 8D).
The jeok of the four jongka houses can be classified into the
“three-jeok building method,” which involves piling three different
types of jeok in the same jeokteul [28]. However, the jeok piling
order differs according to schools of thought. The Kiho school of
thought (畿湖學派), which include Seoul, Kyeongki-do, and
Chungcheong-do regions, piles jeok in the order of beef, chicken,
and fish. This is the method that is used in “Bangchon jongka” to pile
their three jeok. On the other hand, Youngnam school of thought (嶺
南學派) piles jeok in the order of fishebeefechicken (Fig. 9). This is
the method that is used in “Kosan jongka,” “Karam jongka,” and
“Toekye jongka” to pile their three jeok. The jeok building method of Fig. 10. “Umorinkae” (羽毛鱗介) can be found in “Hoenamja (淮南子),” an ancient
the Youngnam school of thought uses the umorinkae (羽毛鱗介) Chinese text written by Yu An in 2nd century B.C. (劉安, B.C. 179e122). Instead of the
principle, wherein adds the shelled seafood, such as abalone and term umorinkae, kaerin (介鱗) and mou (毛羽) are used.
mussels, are added beneath the eojeok (very bottom) to the prin-
ciple of Umorin (羽毛鱗). This building principle involved piling the
scaled fish of the sea (鱗), the hairy-skinned animals of the land
(毛), and the winged birds of the sky (羽) in order inside jeokteul,
signifying the cosmic harmony that links the sea, the land, and the
sky [19,20,38e44]. However, the researchers did not cite the source
of the umorinkae principle and have failed to identify the records
that marked the beginning of this method in use [28]. Umorinkae
can be found in “Hoenamja (淮南子),” an ancient Chinese text in 2nd
century B.C. (Fig. 10). Instead of the term umorinkae, kaerin (介鱗),
and mou (毛羽) are used to represent all the things of the world;
they are said to be ordered in accordance with the ordering of
kaerinmou (介鱗毛羽) (Fig. 11A). Moreover, mou is the energy of
yang (陽) and kaerin is that of yin (陰), which makes them harmo-
nious. Thus, the interaction of yin and yang acts as the law of origin
that creates all things of the universe (Fig. 11B). Therefore, the jeok

Fig. 9. The ordering of jeok in ancestral ritual food according to different schools of
thought Kiho school of thought (畿湖學派), which include Seoul, Kyeongki-do and
Chungcheong-do, pile the jeok in the order of meat, chicken and fish. The jeok of
“Bangchon jongka” is such a case. Youngnam school of thought (嶺南學派) piles jeok in
the order of fish-meat-chicken. The jeok from “Kosan jongka,” “Karam jongka,” and
“Toekye jongka” are such cases. “Kosan jongka” is located in Chonla-do region, but is
classified as Youngnam school of thought as it has been influenced by Youngnam
academia.
Fig. 11. Details on umorinkae in hoenamja (淮南子), an ancient Chinese text. (A)
Chapter 15, Byeongryakhun (兵略訓), “Hajikaerin Sangkeupmou (下至介鱗 上及毛羽)”
Kaerin is located on the bottom and mou is located on top; all things created thus have
a certain order. (B) Chapter 3, Cheonmunhun (天文訓), mou is yang (毛羽子 陽), and
kaerin is yin (介鱗者 陰), which indicate the universal order of the universe of all things
that interact. ©Lee et al [25].
52 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53
Fig. 12. The jongka covered in this study and presented as cases through field research are marked on a regional basis. This study has covered a total of 17 jongka houses; 1 in
Kyeongki-do, 1 in Kangwon-do, 2 in Chungcheong-do, 3 in Chonla-do and 10 in Kyeongsang-do.
piling principles are laid out in the order of kae, rin, mo, and u; also,
the theoretical background of all things interacting with each other
was presented as the philosophy of yin and yang (陰陽論) [28]
(Fig. 12).
4. Conclusion
The key word for Korean jongka families is change. Korean
jongka families have experienced a wide variety of changes
throughout their existence of several hundreds of years and mul-
tiple generations. The most significant problem of the agricultural
society, which forms the spatial background of the Korean jongka,
significantly influenced the jongka culture as the society aged,
resulting in a lower proportion of young population. As such, the
number of jekwan participating in the ancestral ceremonies
decreased. This has led to moving the dates of ancestral ceremonies
to dates that more jekwan could attend. Moreover, there have been
a number of other changes inside and outside the families, such as
reducing the number of ancestral ritual foods, outsourcing the
cooking to external agencies, and skipping eumbok (飮福). This has
led to realistic difficulties in upholding traditions. On the other
hand, the importance of recording continues to rise [18].
In Kyeongsangbuk-do, home to the largest number (434) of
jongka in Korea, attempts have been made to register the cook-
books “Suunjapbang” and “Eumsikdimibang” in the UNESCO Mem-
ory of the World program [45]. Hundreds of years ago, the jongbus
who wrote the family recipes in a cookbook would have wanted
their descendants to continue the tradition of jongka food across
generations. In the last chapter of "Eumsikdimibang," the wife,
Andong Jang's, implored that the descendants keep the cookbook
safe to be passed on for a long time. This can be interpreted as her
will to protect the family recipes across generations.
However, several centuries later, there are no books that record
the recipes of the modern-day jongka. Some of the younger jongbus
may keep personal records, but they no longer write cookbooks to
be passed down through generations. The passage of jongka food is
typically on a verbal basis, with the present-generation jongbu
passing on what she remembers from her mother-in-law, her
mother and her experience to the next-generation jongbu or her
daughter-in-law. This verbal method presents risks in changing the
amount of ingredients, cooking methods, and order of the foods
across generations as different people cook, resulting in changes to
the taste and form.
Moreover, a large number of jongbu who protect the lineage of
jongka food are aged, and the stories behind the recipes, in-
gredients, and food may disappear after their generation. There-
fore, it is necessary to immediately construct a system of records for
the original dishes that they remember and their recipes. Moreover,
it is also necessary to newly interpret the jongka food using modern
cooking techniques, raising the high value-add of the jongka food
culture. It is hoped that this study will allow society to perceive
jongka as a unique cultural heritage of Korea that all of society
protects and shares, instead of regarding them as families with old
histories. This study should be followed by a comparative study on
 C.H. Lee, Y. Kim / Journal of Ethnic Foods 5 (2018) 40e53
the bulcheonwi ancestral rites table-setting of each jongka along
with the historicity of the individual dishes.
Declarations of interest
All authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Funding
This study was conducted with the support of “Research Pro-
gram for Agricultural Science & Technology Development (Project
No. PJ012661),” National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural
Development Administration, Republic of Korea.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2018.02.006.
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