C Heigh 1994

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Biochemical, microbiological, and nutritional aspects

of kimchi (Korean fermented vegetable products)
a a b
Hong‐Sik Cheigh , Kun‐Young Park & Professor C. Y. Lee
a
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Pusan National University, Pusan, 609–735,
Korea
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, 14456
Version of record first published: 29 Sep 2009.
To cite this article: Hong‐Sik Cheigh , Kun‐Young Park & Professor C. Y. Lee (1994): Biochemical, microbiological, and
nutritional aspects of kimchi (Korean fermented vegetable products), Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 34:2,
175-203
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Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 34(2):175-203 (1994)
Biochemical, Microbiological, and Nutritional

Aspects of Kimchi (Korean Fermented
Vegetable Products)
Hong-Sik Cheigh and Kun-Young Park
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Pusan National University, Pusan, 609-735, Korea
Referee: Professor C. Y. Lee, Department of Food Science and Technology, Cornell University, Geneva, NY 14456
ABSTRACT: Kimchi is a traditional, fermented Korean food that is prepared through a series of processes,
Downloaded by [Universite Laval] at 09:05 24 February 2013
including pretreatment of oriental cabbage (or radish), brining, blending with various spices and other ingredients,
and fermentation. The characteristics of kimchi differ depending on the kimchi varieties, raw materials used,
process, fermentation, and preservation methods. However, kimchi has typical biochemical, nutritional, and
organoleptic properties and health-related functions. Kimchi fermentation is initiated by various microorganisms
originally present in the raw materials, but the fermentation is gradually dominated by lactic acid bacteria.
Numerous physicochemical and biological factors influence the fermentation, growth, and sequential appearance
of principal microorganisms involved in the fermentation. Complex biochemical changes occur depending on the
environmental conditions before, during, and after fermentation. The most important characteristics are the
compositional changes of sugars and vitamins (especially ascorbic acid), formation and accumulation of organic
acids, and texture degradation and softening. Nutritionally, kimchi is an important source of vitamins, minerals,
dietary fiber, and other nutrients. This review covers in some detail the biochemical, microbiological, and
nutritional characteristics of kimchi.
KEY WORDS: kimchi, vegetable food, acid fermentation, nutritional composition, organoleptic quality, bio-
chemical deterioration.
I. INTRODUCTION the ancient past. It is estimated that a salted veg-

etable as a type of pickled vegetable was con-
Kimchi is a traditional, fermented Korean sumed in the 3rd or 4th century A.D. in Korea.
vegetable food. Oriental cabbage or radish is the However, the historical record indicates a later
most popular major raw material for kimchi, but date. According to Samkuksaki, published in
many other vegetables, such as cucumber and 1145 A.D., in the Sylla dynasty (about 720 A.D.)
green onion, also are used for the preparation of fermented vegetables were prepared using a stone
various types of kimchi. The major raw material pickle jar, one of which was found at a Bupju
is salted after prebrining, blended with various temple and still exists. Also, in Dongkukisang-
spices and other minor ingredients, and then fer- kukjip, published in the 12th century, there is a
mented. Therefore, kimchi is a unique fermented record of fermented vegetables being consumed
vegetable product. There are many (more than in winter. Many records indicate the use of fer-
50) types of kimchi, depending on the raw ingre- mented vegetables since the 17th century. For
dients and preparation methods used. Among example, Umsikdimibang (published around 1670)
these, baechu kimchi (Chinese cabbage kimchi) illustrates methods of preparation for 7 different
and kaktugi (diced radish kimchi) are the ones types of pickled vegetables; Sanlimkyungje
most favored in Korea at present.1"3 (around 1715) records 8 types; Chungbosan-
Fermented vegetables or salt-pickled veg- limkyungje (1776) records 34 types; and
etables have been consumed in many countries in Imwonsibyukji (around 1827), which may be the
1040-8398/94/$.50
©1994 by CRC Press, Inc.
175
most important classic literature on kimchi, de- ripening time. Although properly fermented (or
scribes 97 types. Based on these records of kimchi ripened) kimchi is the type mainly consumed,
preparation and consumption, traditional kimchi relatively fresh kimchi (unripened) and sour
may be classified into four categories: (1) veg- kimchi (overripened) also are consumed. Fresh
etables cured in a high concentration of salt; (2) kimchi is not a fully fermented product and pro-
vegetables fermented with grains; (3) vegetables vides the fresh flavor and texture of a salad. Prop-
cured with soy sauce and vinegar; and (4) veg- erly fermented kimchi provides a uniquely sour,
etables fermented with salt, spices, and other somewhat sweet, carbonated taste and character-
ingredients. Among these, the latter are consid- istic texture and is consumed as a favored side
ered as ordinary kimchi today. A detailed prepa- dish with cooked rice. Sour kimchi made by ex-
ration of this food is described in Imwonsibyukji. tended fermentation is more sour and has a softer
As one of the classic types of kimchi, sukbakji texture than the other kimchi types. It also is used
was made from various materials such as rad- in preparing side dishes: Vimc\à-geegae (a veg-
ish, cabbage, and cucumber, with other minor etable soup prepared from kimchi, meat, soybean
ingredients of garlic, ginger, pickled fishes, curd, etc.), kimchi-bokunbap (a type of cooked
and salt. Also, one of the old recipe books, rice with kimchi), and kimchi-noodle.
Kyuhapchongseo (around 1815), describes the Traditionally, kimchi was prepared to pre-
preparation methods for different varieties of serve and enhance the organoleptic and nutri-
kimchi in detail. Considering all these records tional qualities of fresh vegetables during the
on kimchi preparation and consumption, it is winter in Korea, when the fresh vegetable supply
reasonable to assume that kimchi has been pre- is limited. However, this has changed in recent
pared and consumed since the 3rd or 4th cen- years to an almost year-round food because veg-
tury A.D. in Korea, and, initially, radish may etables are available all seasons. Currently, it is
have been the major raw material. Later, Chi- estimated that Koreans consume about 90 g of
nese cabbage, red pepper, and other spices were kimchi per person per day; therefore, kimchi is a
used for variety. Typical kimchi, similar to the major source of vitamins, minerals, and dietary
present type of kimchi, may have been pro- fiber for the Korean population.2 Originally,
duced and consumed since the 18th century.2>4-5 kimchi was considered exclusively a home prod-
Fermented vegetables are known worldwide, uct, but now considerable amounts of kimchi are
such as sauerkraut, pickled cucumbers, olives, produced and distributed commercially. Because
Chinese humchoy, Japanese zukemono, in addi- of increased consumer purchasing power, the wide
tion to kimchi.6 It should be noted that even though distribution of refrigerators, and improved pro-
kimchi may be prepared by a fermentation processing technology, there has been a recent ten-
cess similar to that of sauerkraut or fermented dency toward increased consumption of commer-
vegetables of China, kimchi has some distinct cially produced kimchi. The marketed kimchi is
characteristics: there are more than 50 different mainly of baechu kimchi (about 70%) and radish
kinds of kimchi, depending on the raw materials kimchi (20%). These products are consumed
and preparation methods. The major material (ori- mostly in urban areas, restaurants, and food ser-
ental cabbage or radish), spices (especially, red vice operations. A small portion of commercially
pepper, garlic, green onion, and ginger), and salt- produced kimchi also is exported.7
pickled seafood are essential ingredients for kimchi Although extensive scientific studies on
preparation. Kimchi liquid also is consumed with kimchi have been carried out, a systematic inves-
excellent eating quality in addition to the solid tigation of kimchi has been difficult because of
tissue (the major portion) in whole kimchi. Dur- the complexity of the preparation methods, vari-
ing the fermentation period, the typical organo- eties of ingredients, and nature of fermentation.1-2
leptic quality of odor, taste, and texture of kimchi A few studies on kimchi were started in the 1930s,
is formed. Therefore, from a quality point of view, and, since the 1960s, some intensive studies on
the fermentation process may be called a ripening the raw materials, processing, fermentation, mi-
process and the fermentation time may be called croorganisms, biochemistry, nutrition, and qual-
176
ity of kimchi have been done. At present, there functional properties of kimchi. There are two
are about 200 published articles, research papers, major groups, ordinary kimchi and water-added
and patents, mostly written in Korean with En- kimchi, with many kinds in each group, as shown
glish abstracts. Also, several reviews are avail- in Table 1. For ordinary kimchi with no added
able on fermentation, and a general outline of water, there are baechu kimchi, tongbaechu
kimchi written in English6-12*14 or Korean.1"38-11 kimchi, kaktugi, etc. They are prepared by blend-
In this article, we discuss the basic scientific ing salted major raw material with other ingredi-
knowledge of kimchi, with special emphasis on ents, followed by fermentation. Most types of
the biochemical, nutritional, and microbiological kimchi belong in this category. Kimchi with added
characteristics, through an extensive review of water, so-called mool-kimchi, includes baik
the related literature. kimchi, dongchimi, nabak kimchi, etc. They are
prepared with added water (or with brine solu-
tion) and various ingredients through fermenta-
II. VARIABLES INVOLVED IN THE tion.
BIOCHEMICAL, MICROBIOLOGICAL,
Kimchi also can be classified as: ordinary,

AND NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS kaktugi, dongchimi, changachi, pickles, etc. Us-
OF KIMCHI ing this classification, there are 54 different kinds
in 6 groups that are prepared and consumed in
A. Varieties and Raw Materials Used for Korea.15 A survey of the frequency of kimchi
Making Kimchi home preparation by kimchi varieties shows that
baechu kimchi is the most frequently prepared
The characteristics of kimchi differ depend- product, followed by kaktugi, dongchimi, and
ing on the varieties of kimchi. The varieties are chonggak kimchi (ponytail kimchi).16 Therefore,
due to the raw materials, processing methods, and baechu kimchi and kaktugi are the more impor-
TABLE 1
Classification, Varieties, and Major Characteristics
of Kimchi
Classification Varieties of kimchi
Ordinary kimchi Baechu (cut Chinese cabbage)

Tongbaechu (whole Chinese cabbage)
Bossam (wrapped-up Chinese cabbage)
Kaktugi (diced radish)
Yangbaechu (cabbage)
Oisobaegi (cucumber kimchi)
Pa (green onion)
Yeolmoo (young oriental radish)
Mool kimchi Baik (baechu kimchi with added water)

(kimchi with Dongchimi (whole radish)
added water) Nabak (cut radish and Chinese cabbage)
Yeolmoo (young oriental radish)
Note for the major characteristics: ordinary kimchi is usually

prepared with a relatively large amount of red pepper, other
spices and salt-pickled seafood, whereas, mool kimchi is pre-
pared with added water and less red pepper and salt-pickled
seafood. Also, ordinary kimchi is eaten mainly as the solid portion
of kimchi, whereas moo/kimchi is eaten as both of solid and liquid
after optimum fermentation.
177
tant kimchi types, and baechu kimchi is the most trition. The seasonings, especially salt-pickled
typical kimchi and is very often referred to simply seafood, are important ingredients for their ef-
as "kimchi". fects on taste, flavor, and nutritional fortification
The kimchi preparation ingredients are the as well as on the fermentation process. The ef-
major raw materials, spices, seasonings, and ad- fects will vary depending on the amount used in
ditional materials, as shown in Table 2. Oriental the recipes and the kimchi varieties. In terms of
cabbage and radish are the most important ingre- the frequency of use of each ingredient other than
dients among about 30 vegetables in the major Chinese cabbage and oriental radish, spices such
raw materials group. The spices include garlic, as garlic, green onion, ginger, and red pepper are
red pepper, green onion, ginger, mustard, onion, used with almost 100% frequency, like salt, in all
etc. Seasonings are optional ingredients that kimchi preparations. In addition, salt-pickled sea-
include salt (salt is used mainly for brining in food and fresh oysters are often used.16
addition to taste enhancement), salt-pickled sea- Even though the same formulation is used,
food, sesame seed, soy sauce, vinegar, and sugar. the composition, microorganisms, fermentation
Additional materials are optional ingredients, behavior, flavor, and texture of kimchi may be
including other vegetables (leaf mustard, water different, depending on the species or variety
cress, carrot, etc.), fruits (pear and apple), nuts of ingredient, especially the cabbage or radish.
(ginko nut, chestnut, pine nut, etc.), cereals For example, so-called Korean baechu (the
(rice, barley, wheat flour, etc.), meats (beef and species of Chinese cabbage, Brassica compes-
pork), seafood (pollock, shrimp, oyster, squid, tries spp.) has been developed primarily for
etc.) and mushrooms. Combinations of these making kimchi in Korea and is the cabbage of
ingredients vary depending on the preparation choice in baechu kimchi. Korean baechu has an
methods, seasons, households, and commercial oval-shaped head 25 to 40 cm long, whose light
companies. green leaves are compact and usually overlap at
The optional ingredients may be used to im- the apex. Also, different species of radish are
prove fermentation, taste, flavor, and protein nu- used for either kaktugi or chongkak kimchi. It
TABLE 2
Raw Materials Used for the Preparation of Kimchi
Groups Raw materials
Major raw materials Baechu (Chinese cabbage), radish, ponytail radish,

young oriental radish, cucumber, green onion, lettuce,
western cabbage, leek, green pepper, etc.
Spices Red pepper, green onion, garlic, ginger, mustard, black
pepper, onion, cinnamon, etc.
Seasonings
Salt Dry salt or brine solution
Salt-pickled seafood Anchovy, shrimp, clam, hair tail, yellow corvenia, etc.
Other seasonings Sesame seed, soybean sauce, monosodium glutamate,
corn syrup, etc.
Other materials
Vegetables Water cress, carrot, crown daisy, parsley, mustard
leaves, etc.
Fruits and nuts Pear, apple, jujube, melon, ginko nut, pine nut, etc.
Cereals Rice, barley, wheat flour, starch, etc.
Fish and meats Shrimp, Alaska pollock, squid, yellow corvenia,
oyster, beef, pork, etc.
Miscellaneous Mushrooms, etc.
178
should be noted that the species of these major chart for processing baechu kimchi is shown in
ingredients have different functional effects on Figure 1. Pretreated cabbage is cut 3 to 5 cm in
organic acid production, carbon dioxide forma- size, brined in salt solution (8 to 15% concen-
tion, fermentation behavior, storage stability, tration) for 2 to 7 h, rinsed with fresh water,
and organoleptic quality. The quality of the and drained. Separately sliced oriental radish,
minor ingredients, such as salt, seasonings, and carrot, green onion, and onion, chopped garlic,
salt-pickled seafood, also affects taste, flavor, ginger, red pepper, salt-pickled seafood, and
and fermentation.17"19 dry salt are combined to make a premixture of
spices and other minor ingredients with a proper
ratio by the recipe. This premixture is blended
B. Process for Making Kimchi well with the treated cabbage. The blend is then
placed in a fermentation vessel with the lid on
1. Preparation Methods of Typical and fermented for 1 to 3 weeks at low tempera-
Kimchi tures (2 to 10°C) or for 1 to 3 d at room tem-
perature (20 to 25°C). Usually, kimchi is pre-
Generally, kimchi preparation methods differ served at lower temperatures (0 to 8°C) and
depending on the variety of kimchi and the ingre- served cold.
dients used, as well as whether production is in The preparation of tongbaechu kimchi is
households or industrial companies. However, the almost the same as that for baechu kimchi, with
principal process consists of pretreatment, brin- the same ingredients and recipe except for the
ing, blending of ingredients, and fermentation. pretreatment process of cabbage. Graded and
Chinese cabbage or oriental radish may be treated washed Chinese cabbage for tongbaechu kimchi
in various ways before brining. Pretreatments in- is cut lengthwise into two or four parts with a
clude grading, washing, and cutting. Other mate- knife inserted through the bottom of the cab-
rials also are graded, washed, arid cut or chopped bage head. The cabbage sections are treated
for the blending and fermentation steps. Pretreated with dry salt for several hours, rinsed, and
cabbage or radish is brined at various salt concen- drained. A premixture of spices and other mi-
trations by either dry salt or brine solution. Brine- nor ingredients, as discussed above, are packed
treated and rinsed ingredients (cabbage, radish, between the layers of the cabbage leaves. The
cucumber, etc.) are blended together with dry salt stuffed cabbage is then placed in a vessel and
and a premixture of chopped or sliced minor in- fermented under the same conditions as for
gredients (spices, seasonings, salt-pickled fishes, baechu kimchi.
and other vegetables) according to the recipes. The ingredients for kimchi are shown in Table
The blend is then fermented under the appropriate 3.20 The proportions of ingredients for baechu
conditions. Accordingly, the preparation meth- kimchi, based on the overall weight, are cabbage,
ods, as well as the ingredients, will significantly 80%; radish, 12%; red pepper, 1.0%; garlic, 0.5%;
affect the biochemical, microbiological, and nu- ginger, 0.4%; green onion, 1.0%. The amount of
tritional characteristics. salt shown in this table does not include the salt
Following are brief descriptions of the prepa- used in the initial brining. In general, the final
ration methods for typical kimchi.23i9>11"16 weight percentage of salt in the kimchi is adjusted
to about 2.5 to 3.5%, as is discussed later. For
consumption, baechu kimchi is placed on a plate
a. Baechu Kimchi (Cut Chinese Cabbage and served as is; tongbaechu kimchi is cut and
Kimchi) and Tongbaechu Kimchi (Whole placed on a plate in the original shape of the
Chinese Cabbage Kimchi) cabbage section.
The fermentation process of baechu kimchi is
An appropriate species of Chinese cabbage, similar to sauerkraut fermentation (see Section
with soft and light green leaves, oval-shaped IV). However, there are distinctive differences in
head, and compact structure, is required. A flow- the processing and raw materials between the two
179
Selected Trimming
Chinese cabbage Washing Rinsing &
& Cutting Brining
Draining
(Major raw materials)
Red pepper, garlic,

ginger, green onion Grading - • Washing . Cutting or
and others Chopping
I
(Spices)
Salts, salt-pickled
seafoods, sesame seeds
Chopping & Blending &
and others Grinding Mixing IPre-mixture
(Seasonings)
Other vegetables, fruits, Blending

seafoods, cereals, nuts, Slicing or

meats and mushrooms Chopping I
(Other materials a Fermentation
I
optional ingredients)
Baecliu kimchi1
FIGURE 1. Flow chart for production of baechu kimchi.
TABLE 3
Ingredients of Typical Kimchi (wt %)
Raw Baechu Baik

materials kimchi kimchi Kaktugl Dongcl
Chinese cabbage 80.0 80.0

Radish 12.0 12.0 87.0 90.0
Red pepper (powder) 1.0 — 1.5 —
Garlic 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0
Ginger 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5
Green onion 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Mustard leaves 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Parsley 1.0 1.0 — —
Pickled shrimp 0.8 0.8 4.0 —
Fermented fish soup 1.1 0.8 — —
Salt 0.5 — 2.0 4.0
Other ingredients 0.7 2.5 2.0 2.5
Note: Salt required for brining is not indicated in this table.
From Shin, S. Y., Food Nutr., 5(4), 30, 1984. With permission.
products. Cabbage for sauerkraut is wilted, cored, centration of about 2.25% when the cabbage is
trimmed, and shredded. Dry salt is uniformly placed in a tank, where it is fermented under a
mixed into the shredded cabbage, with a salt con- plastic sheet cover.6-21"25 The preparation method
180
of baechu kimchi also is different from that of Preparation of kaktugi may omit the rinsing step
Chinese humchoy.6 after salting.
e. Dongchimi (Whole Oriental Radish

b. Bossam Kimchi (Wrapped-Up Chinese
Kimchi with Added Water)
Cabbage Kimchi)
The major ingredient, whole oriental radish,
Bossam kimchi is similar to tongbaechu
is usually salted with dry salt and rinsed. The
kimchi, but with a minor difference: for the prepa-
salted, uncut radish is mixed with other ingredi-
ration of bossam kimchi, a premixture, prepared
ents in a large quantity of brine solution and then
from spices and a variety of vegetables, fruits,
fermented in a vessel. Generally, a sufficient
nuts, mushrooms, and seafood, is wrapped in cab-
amount of brine is poured into the vessel to com-
bage leaves. For bossam kimchi, the Chinese cab-
pletely immerse the mixed ingredients. Also, salt-
bage is not cut; instead, the leaves of the head are
pickled seafood and red pepper powder are not
separated after brining and rinsing and are placed
used.
in a flat bowl. On top of each leaf, the premixture

and other garnishing ingredients are placed. These
stuffing materials are wrapped with the leaves 2. Major Treatments Used for
and then fermented in a vessel. This is a special Making Kimchi
kimchi with a characteristic flavor and nutritional
quality; however, it is not widely consumed due Among the treatments, the most important
to the extra time and labor required for prepara- steps that affect the quality and the biochemical
tion. and microbiological characteristics of kimchi are
(1) selection and formulation of the raw materi-
als, (2) brining of the major raw material, and (3)
c. Baik Kimchi (Whitish Baechu Kimchi or fermentation.
Baechu Kimchi with Added Water)
a. Selection and Formulation of
The process for making baik kimchi is similar Raw Materials
to that for baechu kimchi. The difference is that
red pepper powder is not used and there is more The quality and species of the major ingredi-
liquid (soup) in this kimchi with added water. ent (Chinese cabbage or oriental radish) may sig-
Also, the fermentation of baik kimchi takes a nificantly affect the product characteristics of
relatively short time, with a lower salt concentra- kimchi. For example, there are appropriate spe-
tion. Because there is no red pepper in this kimchi, cies of Chinese cabbage for baechu kimchi. Also,
it is not spicy hot and the liquid color is not depending on the type of radish kimchi, the radish
pinkish but translucent. Both the solid and the for kaktugi is different from the radish for
liquid portions of baik kimchi are popularly con- chongkak kimchi. Additionally, the selection and
sumed. formulation of other ingredients vary depending
on the types and preparation methods. The quality
of the raw materials, such as the maturity of fruits
d. Kaktugi (Diced Oriental Radish Kimchi) and salt-pickled seafood, also affects the
fermentation behavior and quality characteristics
This is a typical radish kimchi and widely of kimchi.1"3-11-26
consumed in winter. As shown in Table 3, orien-
tal radish is the major raw material. Radishes are b. Brining of Major Raw Materials and Salt
cut into cubes (1.5 to 3 cm in size) and mixed Concentration
with dry salt (not salt solution) for 5 to 30 min.
A premixture of spices and other ingredients is Brining may be accomplished with either a
added to the cut radish cubes and blended. The brine solution or dry salt. This treatment is the
mixture is placed in a vessel for fermentation. most important step for fermentation and preser-
181
vation. Generally, in baechu kimchi, brining is c. Fermentation Process
carried out over a wide time range (1 to 15 h),
depending on the salt concentration (5 to 18%) Kimchi fermentation occurs mainly because
and temperature (8 to 25°C). For kaktugi, dry salt of the microorganisms naturally present in the
is added to radish cubes for a given time without raw materials, which contain numerous and var-
rinsing.. However, the salt-treated cabbage for ied microflora, including lactic acid bacteria.
baechu kimchi is rinsed and drained before blend- Fermentation may be initiated by various micro-
ing with the premixture of other ingredients. For organisms, but lactic acid bacteria gradually domi-
baechu kimchi, the salt concentration is adjusted nate with organic acid formation. Numerous
to 3% of the overall ingredients, and this concen- chemical, physical, and biological factors may
tration is the best for optimum fermentation and contribute directly to the growth of microorgan-
quality. This concentration is maintained during isms and to the extent of fermentation. The most
fermentation and preservation. If the concentra- important factors that affect kimchi fermentation
tion is <3%, fermentation proceeds too fast and are microorganisms, salt concentration, ferment-
frequently causes quick acidification and/or soft- able carbohydrates, other available nutrients, and
ening. Gn the other hand, color and flavor are any inhibitory compounds, as well as oxygen, pH,
not acceptable when the salt concentration is and temperature. Salt concentration, temperature,
and pH greatly influence the rate and extent of
Generally, brining reduces the moisture con- lactic acid fermentation.2-8-11 The optimum fer-
tent, relative volume, and weight, as well as mentation time and the time for the most accept-
internal void space of the cabbage. These able quality of kimchi during the fermentation
changes affect the physical properties of the process by salt concentration and temperature are
vegetable, especially the flexibility and firm- shown in Table 4.29 Detailed microbiological char-
ness of the tissue, which give a typical textural acteristics and kimchi fermentation are discussed
property to the final product. Brining also re- in Section IV.
duces the content of water- or salt-soluble com-
pounds and increases the salt content in the
tissues.27-30 As a result of brining, the total yeast C. Methods for Kimchi Preservation
and mold counts in salted cabbage are reduced;
however, due to the action of salt, lactic acid Kimchi ripened properly has the best flavor,
bacteria-may be increased.28 taste, and texture. However, these qualities can be
TABLE 4
Optimum Fermentation Time and Time to Most
Acceptable Kimchi during Fermentation by Salt
Concentration and Temperature
Salt concentration (%)

Temperature
(°C) 2.25 3.5 5.0 7.0
30 1-2a 1-2 2 2
20 2-3 2-3 3-5 10-16
14 5-10 5-12 10-18 13-32
5 35-180 55-180 90-180 Not ripened
a
Time in days.
From Mheen, T. I. and Kwon, T. W., Korean J. Food Sei. Technol.,

16(4), 447, 1984. With permission.
182
maintained for a certain time only by using rea- Currently, because of the ready availability of
sonable preservation methods. Quality is highly refrigeration systems, kimchi is stored and dis-
dependent on the storage conditions and can de- tributed in the refrigerator or cold chain systems
teriorate through undesirable biochemical and regardless of the season.
biological actions after fermentation. The major Kimchi blended at low temperature (15°C)
threats to quality during storage are acidification with a 3% salt concentration and fermented slowly
and softening (see Sections IV and V). To main- at - 1 °C can be kept for more than 3 months at this
tain the quality of properly ripened kimchi, it is same low temperature. To store kimchi for such a
necessary to control the related actions of chemi- long time, low-temperature pasteurization and low-
cal components, enzymes, and microorganisms. temperature storage is suggested. Kimchi is packed
Therefore, the preservation method is the most in polyethylene film bags (0.08 mm in thickness)
important factor to maintain the organoleptic qual- and heat treated at low temperature (e.g., 60°C for
ity, as well as the biochemical, nutritional, and 20 min). Kimchi prepared this way can then be
microbiological characteristics. Generally, the stored at 4°C for more than 3 months with a
typical preservation method used in households constant titratable acidity (near 0.57) and good
and commercial plants is storage at low tempera- eating quality (see Table 5).32
ture. However, many attempts have been made to At freezing temperatures (below -5°C), fur-
use heat treatment, irradiation, and chemical ad- ther fermentation of kimchi does not occur be-
ditives for kimchi preservation. cause the microorganisms and enzymes are not
Kimchi preservation at low temperature in- active. Therefore, there is little change in the taste
volves refrigeration or freezing. In Korea, winter and flavor of frozen kimchi. The kimchi liquid is
kimchi is traditionally prepared in early winter. frozen at around -5°C, and the solid kimchi starts
Fermentation takes place slowly in the kimchi to freeze below -5°C. The texture of kimchi fro-
vessel placed in the ground and the ripened kimchi zen at -15°C is damaged significantly during the
is stored under the same conditions during the process of freezing and thawing.32 Therefore, slow
entire winter season. Thus, traditional kimchi is freezing may induce the degradation of texture,
fermented and stored at low temperature. although there is little change in the taste and odor
TABLE 5
Changes of Titratable Acidity of Kimchi with and
without Heat Treatment during Low-Temperature
Storage
Storage period (days)
Treatments 30 60 90
Heat treated at 60°C for 10 min 0.56 0.58 0.58

and stored at 4°C
Heat treated at 60°C for 20 min 0.57 0.57 0.57
and stored at 4°C
No heat treatment 0.64 0.70 0.72
and stored at 5°C
and stored at 0°C
and stored at -5°C
Modified from Lee, Y. H. and Yang, I. W., J. Korean Agrie.

Chem. Soc, 13(3), 214, 1970.
183
of this kimchi. Quick freezing is recommended to Sugars are fermented rapidly by microorgan-
preservethe texture. For example, when kimchi is isms and decrease with conversion to other mate-
placed in plastic film bags (3 to 6 cm in thick- rials, such as organic acids and carbon dioxide.
ness), frozen in brine at -30 to -38°C, and stored Starch and other polysaccharides are hydrolyzed
frozen, the texture is relatively good after thaw- to smaller molecules. The amino acids are af-
ing, although the quality still depends on the thaw- fected mainly by the addition of ingredients such
ing method.33 as salt-pickled seafood and meats, and some amino
Many trials have been performed to extend acids are consumed by microorganisms during
the shelf life of kimchi by means other than re- fermentation. Concurrently, amino acids accumu-
frigeration or freezing. These include sterilization late via protein hydrolysis. The activities of amy-
with and without preservatives, heat treatment lase and protease increase during the initial fer-
with flexible packaging, canning and bottling, mentation period and then decrease later.2'3
utilization of food additives, irradiation, etc. These Numerous biochemical changes occur, with
methods are discussed further in Section IV. the formation of acceptable flavor and texture
during fermentation. However, undesirable fer-
mentation or overfermentation after ripening may

III. BIOCHEMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL produce a poor quality kimchi, with acidification
CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL and softening. Because the raw materials con-
KIMCHI tain sufficient sugar to convert to organic acids,
excessive acid can be formed with continuous
A. Principal Biochemical and Nutritional fermentation by the more acid-tolerant micro-
Properties of Kimchi organisms. Softening is associated with decom-
position of pectic substances in the tissues of the
A series of complex biochemical and micro- cabbage or radish. Polygalacturonase, which is
biological activities obviously occur during involved in tissue softening, shows a higher ac-
kimchi preparation. Also, the nutritional charac- tivity during the later fermentation stage and is
teristics-of kimchi are determined by the com- known to be excreted primarily from the aerobic
plex relationship of ingredients and biochemical and surface film-forming microorganisms. Also,
reactions, which is highly dependent on the ini- changes in chlorophyll compounds and other sub-
tial ingredients, enzymes, and microorganisms stances occur during preparation and storage of
in the kimchi. Therefore, research to identify the fermented kimchi.1"3-35
complex biological and chemical behaviors in Nutritionally, kimchi is an important source
the tissue and liquid of kimchi is found to be of vitamins, such as the vitamin B group, caro-
difficult. tene, and ascorbic acid. These are already present
The raw ingredients are the source of the in the raw materials; however, some vitamins,
nutrients and the substrates for the biological or particularly those of the B group and ascorbic
biochemical reactions. Kimchi fermentation is acid, may be synthesized during the fermentation
mainly lactic acid fermentation by lactic acid bac- process. The carotene content in kimchi varies
teria. However, other fermentation processes by depending on the use of red pepper, carrot, green
aerobic bacteria, yeasts, and molds occur simulta- onion, and other vegetables. Also, kimchi is an
neously. The primary fermentation products of important source of minerals and dietary fiber. In
hetero- and homofermentative lactic acid bacteria addition, considerable amino acids are present in
are lactic acid, acetic acid, ethanol, carbon diox- kimchi compared with some other fermented veg-
ide, etc. The relative aerobic environment within etables that have a relatively lower content of
the kimchi eventually becomes anaerobic during protein or amino acids. Therefore, kimchi is con-
fermentation, except at the surface layers of sidered an important resource for balancing nutri-
kimchi.2-3-6 The oxidation-reduction potential is in tion with the main dish of cereal foods consumed
a higher range at the start of fermentation and in Korea. Additionally, kimchi is known to im-
tends to decrease with time.34 prove digestion, prevent constipation, control
184
intestinal flora, and have antimutagenic, anti- the major sugars are glucose, mannose, fructose,
carcinogenic, and other pharmaceutical func- and mannitol.37-38 Not only are sugars nutrition-
tions.3-10 ally important, but also they are a taste compo-
nent and a carbon source for the growth of micro-
organisms involved in kimchi fermentation.
B. Nutritional Composition of Kimchi The amino acids in kimchi are clearly in-
creased with the addition of raw materials like
The nutritional compositions of baechu salt-pickled fish products or meats. One example
kimchi, kaktugi, and dongchimi are shown in Table is shown in Table 7, which indicates that kimchi
6.36 The protein contents of baechu kimchi and with fish products contains higher amounts of
kaktugi are 2.0 and 2.7%, respectively. Other glutamic acid, arginine, lysine, aspartic acid, and
components of sugar, lipid, fiber, and ash are alanine.39 Chongkak kimchi, a type of radish
shown in the same table. In the case oí dongchimi, kimchi, has amino acids similar to that of baechu
the moisture content is higher than that of the kimchi, but has higher amounts of proline, argin-
other two kimchi types, whereas the protein and ine, glutamic acid, alanine, and lysine. The lysine
lipid contents are lower. This is mainly due to the content of kimchi may be four times higher with
moisture content being relatively higher with fish products added.40 In other radish kimchi us-
added brine solution; also, salt-pickled fish and ing young leaves and radish roots, a high content
other animal foods usually are not used as ingre- of various free amino acids is reported.41 Small
dients in preparation of dongchimi. amounts of free amino acids exist in the liquid
The sugar content of kimchi varies depending portion of kimchi, and contribute nutritionally
on the main ingredients. Part of the sugar (6 to and organoleptically.
17%) in raw Chinese cabbage is lost during brin- The lipid content of kimchi is dependent on
ing.28 Also, during fermentation, sugar compounds the use of salt-pickled seafood and other animal
dissolve slowly and move to the liquid from the ingredients. In radish kimchi, lipids range from
tissues. The sugars present in baechu kimchi are 0.2 to 0.8%. The lipids in kimchi are classified as
glucose, mannose, fructose, galactose, and arabi- triglycérides, polar lipids, free fatty acids, mono-
nose. In kaktugi, which is a typical radish kimchi, glycerides, hydrocarbons, and sterols. There are
TABLE 6
Nutritional Composition of Typical Kimchi (per 100 g
of Edible Portion)
Components Baechu kimchi Kaktugi Dongchimi
Moisture (g) 88.4 87.0 93.6

Crude protein (g) 2.0 2.7 0.7
Crude lipid (g) 0.6 0.8 0.2
Total sugar (g) 1.3 3.2 1.1
Crude fiber (g) 7.2 5.6 4.2
Crude ash (g) 0.5 0.7 0.2
Calcium (mg) 28 5 1
Iron (mg) Trace Trace Trace
Vitamin A (IU) 492 946 Trace
Vitamin B, (mg) 0.03 0.03 0.01
Vitamin B2 (mg) 0.06 0.06 0.03
Niacin (mg) 2.1 5.8 1.0
Vitamin C (mg) 12 10 7
From Office of Rural Development (ORD), Food Composition

Table, ORD, Suweon, 1981.
185
TABLE 7
Composition of Free Amino Acid in Kimchi
Prepared with and without Addition of Salt-Pickled
Seafood (mg/100 g of Kimchi)
Ammo acids pickled seafood pickied se
Lysine 0.21 1.10

Histidine 0.07 0.02
Arginine 0.29 0.40
Tryptophan 0.22 0.12
Aspartic acid 0.17 0.78
Threonine and serine 0.40 1.11
Glutamic acid 0.27 0.94
Praline 0.11 0.24
Glycine 0.07 0.22
Alanine 0.52 0.86

Valine 0.15 0.49
Methionine 0.02 0.16
Isoleucine 0.10 0.30
Leucine 0.10 0.49
Tyrosine 0.08 0.12
Phenylalanine 0.07 0.22
Total 2.85 7.57
From Cho, Y. and Rhee, H. S., Korean J. Food Sc!. Technoi,

11(1), 29, 1979. With permission.
18 different fatty acids; the essential fatty acids, for dongchimi. Mineral contents also vary, de-
linoleic acid and linolenic acid, constitute 44 to pending on the recipe and the type of kimchi.36
60% of the total.40 The lipid composition of kimchi
is somewhat different from that of sauerkraut6
because kimchi contains salt-pickled seafood or C. Biochemical Components Affecting
meats, whereas sauerkraut uses cabbage as the Organoleptic Quality
main ingredient.
Baechu kimchi and kaktugi contain 492 and 1. Organoleptic Properties of Kimchi
946 IU of vitamin A, respectively. However,
dongchimi contains very little vitamin A. There The principal organoleptic factors for kimchi
are 0.01'to 0.03 mg% of vitamin B„ 0.03 to 0.06 quality are taste, odor, texture, and color. The
mg% of vitamin B 2 ,1.0 to 5.8 mg% of niacin, and overall taste of kimchi is a combination of sour,
7 to 12 mg% of vitamin C in baechu kimchi, savory, salty, sweet, and freshness. Usually, un-
kaktugi, and dongchimi?6 The content of these ripened kimchi is salty and overripened kimchi is
vitamins differs greatly, depending on the major sour. The typical odor is a combination of sour
raw material and the minor ingredients. Addition- and uniquely spicy with a green odor in unripened
ally, fermentation and storage may cause the de- kimchi and a particularly acidic or moldy odor in
struction, consumption, and/or synthesis of vita- overripened kimchi. The texture of kimchi has
mins (see Section V). In terms of mineral content overall characteristics of firmness, crispiness, and
in kimchi, calcium is a major component, but chewiness. However, overripened kimchi has a
there is very little phosphorus or iron. As shown softer texture. The color of kimchi differs de-
in Table 6, the calcium contents are 28 mg% for pending on the variety. For example, baechu
baechu kimchi, 5 mg% for kaktugi, and 1 mg% kimchi and kaktugi are pinkish because of the
186
color of red pepper, whereas dongchimi and baik cially red pepper or garlic, added to Chinese cab-
kimchi have a milky color and the liquid portion bage enhance the production of organic acids
is translucent. during fermentation. On the other hand, acetic
For a sensory evaluation of kimchi, the de- and propionic acids are the major volatile organic
scriptive terms used for taste may be sourness, acids present in all types of kimchi. The produc-
saltiness, freshness, and moldy. Those for odor tion of acetic acid also is heavily influenced by
are freshness, greeny, moldy, and sour; those for the addition of pepper, garlic, or ginger. How-
texture are crispiness, chewiness, and firmness.42-43 ever, other volatile organic acids are not consis-
The color of kimchi is less important than taste, tent in these results.45 In regular baechu kimchi
odor, and texture. According to a quantitative where all ingredients are included, nonvolatile
descriptive analysis based on the sensory evalua- organic acids are malic, fumaric, lactic, succinic,
tion of three kinds of unripened, ripened, and malonic, oxalic, glycolic, citric, and tartaric ac-
overripened kimchi, fresh sour taste, fresh sour ids. Lactic and succinic acids are the major acids
odor, and crispy texture are given high values for in nonvolatile organic acids. Kimchi fermented at
ripened kimchi, whereas sour taste, sour and moldy a lower temperature (6°C) tends to have a higher
odor, and soft texture have high values for amount of these acids than kimchi fermented at a
overripened kimchi.42 higher temperature (22°C).46 The sour and other
acidic tastes of kimchi are affected mainly by the
amounts of lactic and succinic acids, with minor
2. Major Components Affecting contributions of other organic acids. The volatile
Organoleptic Quality organic acids in baechu kimchi are formic, acetic,
propionic, butric, valeric, caproic, and heptanoic
The chemical components related to organo- acids. Among these, acetic and propionic acids
leptic quality of kimchi depend on the types, prepa- are the major volatile organic acids, which con-
ration, and storage methods (see Section H). The tribute the most to the sour odor of kimchi.47-49
compounds contributing to kimchi quality may be On the other hand, the nonvolatile organic
formed from the interactions of substrates, en- acids in kaktugi are similar to those of baechu
zymes, and microorganisms during preparation kimchi, and their formation is significantly af-
and fermentation. Therefore, these compounds fected by salt content and other fermentation
may be very complex; however, the principal conditions (Table 8).43 At a lower salt concentra-
compounds are organic acids, sugar, salt, volatile tion and longer fermentation, there is an increas-
compounds, etc. ing tendency toward acid production.43-48 In
dongchimi, a variety of organic acids, including
lactic acid, is found. The concentration of these
a. Organic Acids organic acids is higher in the liquid portion of
dongchimi than in the tissues. Considering that
The organic acids in kimchi are mainly formed the liquid portion oí dongchimi is enjoyed along
by the conversion of sugars in the raw materials with the tissue, the organic acids and other wa-
during fermentation. Therefore, the physiological ter-soluble compounds in the liquid portion of
properties of the microorganisms involved in dongchimi play an important role in the taste and
kimchi fermentation and the content of ferment- odor of dongchimi.4S
able sugars in the raw materials affect the produc-
tion of organic acids quantitatively and qualita-
tively (see Section IV).21-35-44 b. Other Compounds Responsible for Taste
In a laboratory model of baechu kimchi made
with the addition of different spices but with the Various compounds, other than organic ac-
same recipe, there is a high concentration of non- ids, such as free amino acids, sugars, salt, and
volatile organic acids such as lactic acid and suc- nucleic acid-related substances, are responsible
cinic acid in all types of kimchi. The spices, espe- for the typical tastes such as savory, sweet, and
187
TABLE 8
Nonvolatile Organic Acid Content of Kaktugi
with Various Salt Concentrations and
Fermentation Periods (mg/100 g Kaktugi)
Salt concentration
2% 3%
Fermentation period
Organic acids 4 days 8 days 4 days 8 days
Lactic acid 24.42 40.94 19.52 31.58

Oxalic acid 0.28 0.28 0.32 0.22
Malonic acid ND 0.02 ND 0.04
Fumaric acid 0.02 0.18 ND 0.14
Succinic acid 3.12 6.24 2.82 4.88
Maleic acid 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.04

Malic acid 0.04 3.16 0.04 3.26
Citric acid 5.78 9.06 4.34 4.81
Total 33.68 59.92 27.06 44.98
Note: ND = not detectable.
From Kim, S. Y. and Kim, K. D., Korean J. Food Sei.

Techno!., 21(3), 373, 1989. With permission.
salty. Among the free ammo acids in kimchi, originate with the raw materials and fermenta-
glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and lysine provide tion process. The flavor compounds in the indi-
distinctive taste characteristics.39-40 There are sev- vidual ingredients, such as spices, cabbage, etc.,
eral kinds of sugars that affect the sweetness of included in kimchi recipes are known and docu-
kimchi:.However, glucose, fructose, and manni- mented worldwide. However, the kimchi flavor
tol play the major roles.37-38 If an excessive amount that comes from the fermentation of all ingredi-
of sugar is present in the raw materials, there can ents has not been fully studied at this time. In
be an overproduction of organic acids during fer- particular, a systematic approach has not been
mentation.18 Along with organic acids, sugar and followed for the various fractions of high
salt are the most important factors affecting the volatiles, low volatiles, desirables, undesirables,
taste of kimchi. About 3% of the salt in kimchi is acidic or basic, and other specific fractions.
known to be appropriate in terms of organoleptic Therefore, it is expected that more detailed stud-
quality and the fermentation process. However, ies will yield a positive identification of flavor
the proper concentration of salt varies consider- compounds and precursors, biological mecha-
ably with the kimchi varieties, the solid tissue or nisms of flavor formation, and the most active
liquid portions of kimchi, and the processing con- compounds. For kimchi, the following volatile
ditions.. There also exist some nucleic acid-re- compounds have been isolated and identified:
lated substances that impart a distinctive taste to various volatile organic acids discussed previ-
kimchi. These compounds may come from raw ously, ethanol, methanol, allyl alcohol, n-hexanol,
materials such as salt-pickled seafood. acetaldehyde, methyl ethyl ketone, acetone,
propionaldehyde, methyl sulfide, ethyl sulfide,
c. Some. Volatile Flavor Compounds methyl ethyl sulfide, allyl sulfide, methyl disul-
fide, allyl disulfide, allyl cyanide, allyl
Volatile compounds generally provide a par- isothiocyanate, dimethyl disulfide, dimethyl
ticular aroma at a very low concentration and trisulfide, dipropyl disulfide, 1-butane-1-
188
isothiocyanate, diallyl disulfide, 4-methylthio- ticide residues detected were far below the levels
3-butenyl isothiocyanate, and others.46"51 set by government regulation and the FAO/
WHO.54 The level of residual chlorpyrifos, which
D. Health-Related Aspects of Kimchi is 0.161 ppm in raw cabbage, decreases to 0.094
ppm (43% removal) by washing and decreases
Obviously, one should select raw ingredients further to 0.010 ppm during kimchi fermentation.
that are free from any kinds of undesirable mate- These residue levels are much lower than that of
rials, such as agricultural chemicals, parasites, the Korean and FAO/WHO limits. In a model
pathogenic microorganisms, etc. Vegetables system, the residual chlorpyrifos decreased by a
should be cleaned thoroughly through the various first-order reaction as the fermentation of kimchi
pretreatments of grading and washing before brin- proceeded.55-56 Thus, washing, brining/rinsing, and
ing and fermentation, which is the normal proce- fermentation for kimchi preparation are impor-
dure for processing other fruits and vegetables. tant steps to remove residual pesticides. Agricul-
Because kimchi is prepared by using various fresh tural chemicals also can be degraded by various
vegetables, it may be contaminated by some un- microorganisms.54"57 Farmers must follow the
desirable materials. The advantages of acid fer- instructions for pesticide use on vegetables. The
mentation of foods like kimchi are (1) to render level should be low enough to not exceed the
foods resistant to microbial spoilage and develop- allowable limits.
ment of food toxins and (2) to make the transfer Many vegetables, including cabbage, contain
of pathogenic microorganisms less likely.6 NO3. In practice, NO 2 could be formed from NO3
There seems to be no problem with the con- during fermentation, and the reduced NO2 could
tamination of parasites in present farming and react with secondary amine or amides from other
handling systems. However, even if the vegetables materials to form N-nitroso compounds, such as
were contaminated by parasites and their eggs, nitrosamines. Small amounts of NO3 are detected
they could be removed by washing and brining/ in the cabbage and other ingredients for kimchi
rinsing treatments, and would be blocked by spices preparation. The levels of NO2 and secondary
such as garlic and salt and by the acid fermenta- amines are reported to be very low in the ingredi-
tion process.2 It should be remembered that the ents and in kimchi.10-58-61 It is interesting to ob-
viable count of total microorganisms, including serve that there is no quantitative relationship
any pathogens, decreases rapidly because of the between the decrease in NO3 and increase in NO2
salt concentration, organic acid production (low- during kimchi fermentation. The levels of NO2
ering pH), and antimicrobial materials formed formed are very low compared with the loss of
during fermentation. Escherichia coli that were NO3. This is probably because of ascorbic acid,
added experimentally to kimchi (5% salt concen- which degrades NO2, and because of the pos-
tration) were destroyed after fermentation for 2 to sible volatilization of NO2 in the acidic condi-
3 d at 20 to 30°C. However, in kimchi fermented tions in kimchi. NO 2 also could be removed by
at 5°C for the same period, E. coli were not de- the flavonoids in kimchi. Secondary amines in
stroyed completely, but most were destroyed af- raw ingredients could be traced to salt-pickled
ter the ripening of kimchi at the end of the fer- fish; otherwise, those in kimchi are not detected
mentation period. A significant decrease of E. or are decrease during the later fermentation
coli was noted in kimchi with Leuconostoc stages. Also, nitrosamines as a potential carcino-
mesenteroides added and nisin treated. It seems genic compound are in trace amounts or not
that the conditions of kimchi fermentation pre- detected in kimchi under fermentation and in the
clude the growth of the vegetative cells of any of final product. Accordingly, the possible prob-
the food-borne pathogens.52-53 lems due to NO3, NO2, and nitrosamines are not
With the development of agriculture, the use significant in kimchi.10-58-60^4
of pesticides has increased, and the residual level Kimchi has large amounts of ascorbic acid,
of pesticides must be measured in raw vegetables. carotene, dietary fiber, and lactic acid bacteria,
In a recent report on summer vegetables, the pes- which can have antimutagenic or anticarcinogenic
189
effects.65-70-72 However, high doses of salt seem to increasing the salt in the cabbage or radish. The
promote carcinogenicity if the salt is fed with lactic acid bacteria count increases about fourfold
carcinogenic compounds. Excessively high con- after brining the cabbage.27-28-75 Also, after the
centrations of salt can cause comutagenic effects. brining and rinsing/washing treatments, the num-
Therefore, too much salt in food processing, in- ber of bacteria, yeasts, and molds is greatly de-
cluding kimchi preparation, is not recom- creased.28
mended.6667 As discussed previously in Section The fermentation vessels are usually covered
II, kimchi contains about 3% salt, the optimum with lids to provide anaerobic conditions and thus
level for fermentation and taste. It is almost im- minimize the growth of aerobic microorganisms.
possible to have kimchi fermentation with more The fermentation is mainly initiated by lactic acid
than 6% salt. It has been reported that properly bacteria such as L. mesenteroides under normal
ripened kimchi with a 3% salt concentration may anaerobic circumstances, where lactic acid, acetic
have antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic effects.64 acid, carbon dioxide, and ethanol are produced as
Ascorbic acid, carotene, and dietary fiber in yel- major end products. L. mesenteroides is the pre-
low-green vegetables, the extracts of red pepper, dominant lactic acid bacteria in the early fermen-
tation stages.76-77 As the pH drops to 4.6-4.9 with
and the extracts of garlic used as kimchi ingredi-

ents are believed to suppress the formation of organic acid accumulation, L. mesenteroides is
carcinogenic or mutagenic compounds, and to relatively inhibited, but the fermentation contin-
inhibit mutagenicities induced by several carcino- ues with other lactic acid bacteria such as
gens/mutagens.68"72 Streptococcus faecalis, Lactobacillus brevis,
Pediococcus cerevisiae, and L. plantarum. How-
IV. MICROBIOLOGICAL ever, there is considerable overlapping of species.
CHARACTERISTICS AND KIMCHI Also, the growth of each species depends on its
FERMENTATION initial numbers in the cabbage and other ingredi-
ents, the concentrations of salt and sugar, the
A. Typical Fermentation Process absence of oxygen, and the fermentation tem-
perature. L. plantarum is present in the greatest
The fermentation of kimchi, as stated before, numbers following the initial fermentation and
is carried out by various microorganisms, espe- gives the maximum acidity at the later stages.
cially the lactic acid bacteria that are present natu- Aerobic yeasts and molds appear on the surface
rally in the ingredients. Several factors, including of the upper layer and on improperly covered
salt concentration, temperature, pH, population of vegetables at the later fermentation stages. Unde-
related microorganisms, and exposure to air, sirable kimchi with an off-flavor and softened
greatly influence the fermentation pattern. The texture is possibly due to the excessive aerobic
typical kimchi fermentation pattern is similar to growth of molds and film-forming yeasts.76"78
other vegetable lactic acid fermentations .The time required for completion of the fer-
(sauerkraut), but there is a greater variance due to mentation is mostly dependent on temperature
the kimchi varieties. Because the raw ingredients and salt concentration. The optimum period of
for making kimchi are not blanched, they retain fermentation is shown in Table 4.29 For baechu
the epiphytic lactic acid bacteria and other mi- kimchi, this period is 1 to 2 d at 30°C and a 3.5%
croflora that are associated with them in the salt concentration, and 2 d at 5% salt concentra-
field. 1-3.21-25.73.74 tion and the same temperature. At the low tem-
The brining of raw material, therefore, is very perature of 14°C, 5 to 12 d are required at a 3.5%
important for kimchi fermentation. Brining ex- salt concentration, and 10 to 18 d at a 5.0% salt
tracts the water from the raw materials by osmotic concentration. It is believed that more acceptable
activity and suppresses the growth of some unde- kimchi may be prepared by fermentation with
sirable bacteria that could spoil the kimchi ingre- lower salt concentrations at lower temperatures
dients. At the same time, it makes conditions for longer times. On the other hand, high-quality
relatively favorable for lactic acid bacteria by kimchi can be maintained within the time frame
190
shown in the same table. For example, at 14°C microorganisms participating in the fermentation
and a 3.5% salt concentration, the best quality are influenced more by the environmental condi-
kimchi may be obtained from day 5 and main- tions, as described in previous sections.
tained organoleptically until day 12. After day 12, The microorganisms involved in kimchi fer-
it might be classified as overripened kimchi. Also, mentation include about 200 species of bacteria
changes in the total acids and pH are found during and several yeasts isolated from baechu kimchi
kimchi fermentation at different temperatures and and dongchimi. The major anaerobic bacteria,
salt concentrations. Generally, the organic acids among the 150 total, are L. plantarum, L. brevis,
appear at lower levels at lower temperatures and S. faecalis, L. mesenteroides, Pediococcus, and
higher salt concentrations.29-78 others. Most of the 50 aerobic bacteria are species
In most cases, the kimchi fermentation pro- of Achromobacter, Flavobacterium, and Pseudo-
cess has several stages based on the changes of monas. As shown in Figure 3, the number of
pH, acidity, and reducing sugar content as fol- anaerobic bacteria increases, whereas aerobes
lows: the first stage has a rapid decrease of pH, an generally decrease and then increase with the
increase of acidity, and a decrease of reducing growth of molds and film-forming yeasts in the
sugars; the second stage shows a gradual decrease later fermentation stages. The main microorgan-
in pH, an increase in acidity, but a rapid decrease ism responsible for ripening is L. mesenteroides,
of reducing sugars; the later stage has no or only but L. plantarum is responsible for excessive acidi-
gradual changes in pH, acidity, and reducing sug- fication in the later stages.76"79
ars (see Figure.2).9-29-76 The growth pattern of the major lactic acid
bacteria during fermentation at 20 to 30°C is that
B. Principal Microorganisms Involved in the number oiLeuconostoc increase initially, then
the Fermentation at pH 4.0 to 4.5 they decrease rapidly, with an
increase in the number of Lactobacillus species.
The number and species of major microor- However, at 5 to 15°C, the time for the increase
ganisms in kimchi fermentations vary widely, and decrease of lactic acid bacteria is delayed.76"78
influenced by the cabbage and other ingredients. The isolated and identified bacteria are 5 species
However, the growth, activity, and role of the of Leuconostoc, 4 species of Streptococcus, 3
2.0
12
- Yeast
- Anaerobic bacteria
10- -Aerobic bacteria
-«"ft
I 1
20 40 60 80
Fermentation time, days
FIGURE 2. Changes in total acids, reducing sugars,
.and pH in kimchi during fermentation at 20°C (salt, FIGURE 3. Microfloral changes in kimchi during fer-
3%). (Modified from Mheen, T. I., Kwon, T. W., and mentation at 2 to 7°C. (Modified from Ro, W. S., Stud-
Lee, C. H., Korean J. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 9(4), ies on Yeasts Related Ripening of Kimchi, Ph.D. the-
258, 1981. With permission.) sis, Dongkook University, Seoul, 1981, 18-20.)
191
species of Pediococcus, and 18 species of Lacto-
bacillus. Kimchi fermentation is dominated by
Lactobacillus spp. at 25 °C and Leuconostoc spp. 3
at 5°C. 81 The levels of Streptococcus and
Pediococcus species are lower than those of o
Leuconostoc and Lactobacillus species and de-
crease considerably at lower temperature. Like
Leuconostoc, Streptococcus and Pediococcus spe-
I
cies increase initially and then decrease rapidly Pediococci
after the optimum ripening period during fermen- o Lactobacilli
Streptococci
tation. Lactobacillus are distributed throughout
the whole process and continuously participate in 1 Leuconostoc
Total viable count
the fermentation. L. sake and L. brevis also are C3

included among the Lactobacillus species. The
L. sake especially are isolated at an early stage Fermentation time, days
and could not survive under pH 4.0 in the later

stages. L. brevis are isolated at early stages, but FIGURE 4. Microfloral changes in lactic acid bacteria
smaller numbers also are found in the later stages. in kimchi during fermentation at 20°C. (From Lee, C. W.,
L. plantarum is isolated from all stages during the Ko, C. Y., and Ha, D. M., Korean J. Appl. Microbiol.
fermentation period, but especially at the later Biotechnol., 20, 104, 1992. With permission.)
stages after the optimum ripening period.78-80-81
The typical changes of major lactic acid bacteria contain 13 species of molds and 5 species of
during kimchi fermentation are shown in Fig- bacteria. They may participate in the fermenta-
ure 4.78 Lactic acid bacteria isolated from kimchi tion, but would not survive under the kimchi rip-
have antimicrobial activity against E. coli, Sta- ening conditions.86 On the other hand, it is known
phylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and other that garlic has the potential to inhibit the growth
microorganisms. Major lactic acid bacteria re- of aerobic bacteria. The higher the garlic concen-
sponsible for this activity are Pediococcus tration, the smaller the increase in aerobic bacte-
cerevisiae, Leuconostoc spp., and L. plantarum, ria during the initial fermentation period. Garlic
and the properties of the inhibitory substance(s) does not inhibit the various lactic acid bacteria. In
from these bacteria have been determined. These fact, lactic acid bacteria increase more at higher
bacteria could produce adverse circumstances for garlic concentrations during the initial fermenta-
the growth of other microorganisms.82"84 tion period.87-88 However, there is an inhibitory
The various genera and species of yeasts effect of garlic or ginger on kimchi fermentation
isolated from kimchi fermentation are Saccha- and the growth of lactic acid bacteria in some
romyces, Tolulopsis, Debaryomyces, Pichia, cases.89 Also, some components of red pepper
Rhodotorula, Endomycopsis, Kluyveromyces, and salted anchovy stimulate the kimchi ripening
Cryptococcus, Trichospora, and others, with Sac- and the growth of lactic acid bacteria.26
charomyces predominating.85 However, their role Major microorganisms that produce the soft-
in desirable fermentation is not clear, even though ening enzymes in kimchi tissues during the over-
it is believed that they contribute to some flavor ripening period are B. subtilis, Saccharomyces
formation at the early fermentation stages.84 As- fragilis, Candida pseudotropicalis, Oospora lactis,
pergillus, Penicillum, and Scopulariopsis species Aspergillus spp., and Penicillum spp.2 These mi-
have been isolated and identified as mold species crobes markedly increase at the later fermentation
found in kimchi fermentation in the later stages.29-79 stages under aerobic conditions or after the for-
Various microorganisms from materials other mation of a surface film on the upper layer of
than cabbage and radish may be involved in the kimchi. They can produce various tissue-soften-
fermentation. However, they only affect flavor ing enzymes, including polygalacturonase, which
development and the growth of the various destroy pectic substances and other tissue struc-
microorganisms created from the mixed culture tures of cabbage and radish, with a definite dete-
conditions. Red pepper powder was reported to rioration in the kimchi quality/Softening is the
192
most serious problem, along with excessive acidi- ingly, to prevent excessive acidification by lactic
fication of kimchi at the over-ripening stages acid bacteria and other undesirable fermentations,
during fermentation and preservation.1"3 it is recommended that varieties of cabbage or
radish containing a suitable amount of ferment-
able sugars be selected.17"29-28-90
C. Controlled Fermentation for Generally, L. mesenteroides is a major desir-
Acceptable Quality and Long Shelf Life able lactic acid bacterium in the initial fermenta-
tion stage that is active at low temperatures. How-
Kimchi quality can be effectively controlled ever, L. plantarum is active at relatively high
by desirable microorganisms and various fermen- temperatures and at a later fermentation stage,
tation conditions. The fermentation conditions of and thus causes excessively acidic kimchi at higher
temperature, concentration of salt/sugar/oxygen, temperatures and prolonged fermentation peri-
species/number of microflora, and time can be ods. Accordingly, fermentation at lower tempera-
designed for preparing the most desirable kimchi, tures (e.g., 5 to 15°C) is recommended for obtain-
which has an acceptable quality and a long shelf ing acceptable kimchi.29-78-81 Kimchi fermented at
life. In general, as the fermentation temperature room temperature is dominated by L. plantarum

(within the range of 4 to 25°C) decreases or the (about 37% of all microorganisms during the rip-
salt concentration (2 to 5%) increases, the opti- ening period), whereas L. mesenteroides domi-
mum fermentation time is prolonged. Also, anaero- nates at low temperatures (about 32% of the total
bic conditions should be maintained for the growth population).81 A combination of various strains
of lactic acid bacteria and for the control of yeasts such as L. mesenteroides, L. brevis, L. plantarum,
and molds. In some cases, yeasts and molds grow and P. cerevisiae isolated from kimchi could be
and utilize organic acid under aerobic conditions used as starters for kimchi fermentation. These
at the later fermentation stages or after an opti- starters increase the fermentation rate, and mixed
mum ripening period. This increases the pH and strains are more effective than a single strain to
allows the growth of less acid-tolerant spoilage produce better organoleptic quality.91-92
microorganisms, which produce some off-flavor Optimum ripening is reached during the fer-
components and/or softening enzymes.1"3-29 mentation process. Further fermentation after
The first step for improving fermentation is to optimum ripening produces various components,
remove the spoilage microorganisms, which are including organic acids, and changes the physico-
distributed toward the outside of the cabbage chemical properties, including softening the tex-
leaves and in the soil, while stimulating the growth ture. Excessively high acids and soft texture of
of lactic acid bacteria. Brining is one of the pro- kimchi are the most serious problems for product
cesses used to remove the spoilage microorgan- quality during the distribution and storage. These
isms and retain the lactic acid bacteria in the occur in kimchi that ferments further after opti-
cabbage. With this treatment, the number of lactic mum ripening and during long-term storage.
acid bacteria is increased, and the other bacteria Overripening is due mainly to the additional ac-
are significantly decreased.64 After brining, rins- tivities of lactic acid bacteria and softening en-
ing/washing the cabbage also is important. How- zymes. To control overripening or quality dete-
ever, if one overwashes the cabbage, lactic acid rioration after optimum ripening, low temperature
bacteria and sugars are removed, and fermenta- storage, thermal treatment, additive application,
tion will not be successful. and radiation treatment, in addition to the selec-
The acid levels are greatly influenced by the tion of proper raw materials, have been tested.
concentration of fermentable sugars in the cab- Refrigeration or freezing of optimally rip-
bage or radish and by the extent to which this ened kimchi is generally acceptable to control
sugar is converted into acids. Generally, ripened overripening and is currently used for the distri-
kimchi with optimum acidity (about 0.6% as lac- bution and preservation of kimchi products, as
tic acid) has some residual sugars, which can be discussed in Section II. Other than low tempera-
fermented further by lactic acid bacteria and be- ture, various thermal treatments are used for this
come excessively acidified. Also, residual sugar purpose. Aerobic bacteria, such as B. macerans
makes the growth of yeasts possible. Accord- and Pseudomonas spp., lose their activity when
193
kimchi has reached the ripening stage, with its the pouch, although the decrease is less signifi-
relatively low pH, but other lactic acid bacteria, cant below 1.0-cm thickness. For long-term stor-
such as L. plantarum and L. brevis, which are age of pouch-packed kimchi, heating at 80 to
responsible for overripening, still proliferate and 90°C for more than 10 min or at 95°C for more
could be inactivated by heat treatment. These lac- than 7 min is recommended.94
tic acid bacteria are inactivated by heat treating To extend the shelf life of kimchi during pres-
kimchi at 60°C for 18 min and their D value is ervation, the optimum salt concentration is 3%,
3 min.93 However, D and Z values for L. plantarum the optimum fermentation temperature is 15°C,
isolated from kimchi are 1.08 min (at 61°C) and and the optimum preservation temperature is - 2
10.5°C, respectively.94 To destroy all microor- to 0°C.9-31 Also, to control kimchi quality after
ganisms in kimchi, it takes 25.2 min at 80°C. If optimum ripening, additives (such as preserva-
more severe treatments are used, the fresh taste tives, antibiotics, etc.) can be used individually or
and texture of kimchi are lost.94 A combined treat- combined with heat treatment.32-35-93-97-99-101 The
ment of partial sterilization and utilization of pre- addition of sodium acetate, sodium citrate, or
servatives, such as sorbic acid, sodium dehydro- sodium malate as raw ingredients helps to achieve
acetate, or p-hydroxy butyl benzoate, gives a a desirable fermentation initially and provides a
longer shelf life compared with heat treatment pH buffering action at the overripening stage of
alone; however, preservatives have some prob- kimchi fermentation, resulting in a relatively
lems, such as solubility, off-flavor, and food longer shelf life during preservation.102-104
safety.32'35-93 To prevent tissue softening, which is due
Pasteurizing ripened kimchi can increase the mainly to the destruction of pectic substances,
shelf life to some extent with minimal fermenta- preheating and calcium chloride treatment show
tion during the preservation period, even though some positive effects in the control of enzymes
the original freshness of kimchi would not be during fermentation and preservation. By treating
maintained because of the heat treatment. For the cabbage or radish at 50 to 55CC for 1.5 to 2.0 h
example, 200 g of kimchi in a plastic film bag with 0.05 M calcium chloride solution, pectinest-
(11 x 16 x 1.5 cm) treated at 65°C for 20 min has erase could be activated to produce free carboxyl
a longer shelf life than nonpasteurized kimchi. groups that cross-link with the Ca ions and sup-
The shelf life of kimchi in plastic film bags is press the action of polygalacturonase.105-107 Also,
increased greatly by a combined treatment of pas- the shelf life of kimchi can be extended with
teurization (65°C for 20 min) and low tempera- irradiation treatments of gamma or X-rays. For
ture storage (4°C). This combination enables one the gamma-irradiation of optimum ripened kimchi,
to preserve kimchi for more than 4 months with the packing conditions and dose levels have been
reasonable quality.32 Because the solid portion of reported. Treating ripened kimchi with a com-
kimchi is softened by heat treatment, only the bined treatment of irradiation and pasteurization
kimchi liquid is sterilized and then placed with can be used to minimize changes in quality. How-
the solid into sterilized packages. As a modifica- ever, there are some economic and safety con-
tion of this method, the liquid kimchi prepared cerns in using irradiation to preserve kimchi.108"111
with a 3% NaCl solution can be preheated and
held for 3 min at the sterilization temperature; it
is then cooled momentarily and recombined with V. MAJOR BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN
the untreated solid portion of kimchi. This pro- KIMCHI DURING PROCESSING AND
cess extends the shelf life of kimchi twofold com- PRESERVATION
pared to kimchi without treatment during the pres-
ervation. 95 " 98 During heating of the retort A. Changes in the Principal Biochemical
pouch-packed kimchi in hot water, the thermal Properties
diffusivity of this kimchi increased from 1.15 x
10"3 to 1.44 x 10"3 cm/s when blanched for 0 to Because kimchi is prepared by a complex
15 min at 80°C. The rate of heat penetration sig- process and using many raw materials, a variety
nificantly decreases with increased thickness of of biochemical changes may occur during prepa-
194
ration and preservation. At first, during brining, nine, threonine, and arginine, decrease during
salt- or water-soluble compounds from solid tis- kimchi fermentation. However, in some cases,
sue are moved to the liquid portion of kimchi. The free amino acids were increased protein hydroly-
eluted soluble compounds accumulate in the sis of salt-pickled seafood added to the ingredi-
kimchi liquid.28-42 ents.39-40
It is assumed that the complex fermentation Carbon dioxide, which may be produced by
proceeds with a series of biochemical reactions in the heterofermentive lactic acid bacteria during
the tissues and liquid. As a result of these reac- the initial fermentation, increases gradually with
tions, sugars are decreased, with an increase in fermentation time to about 35 to 70 mg/100 ml.
organic acids and a lowering of pH. Typical The amount of dissolved carbon dioxide in kimchi
changes in baechu kimchi during fermentation at liquid is relatively higher in kimchi fermented at
3 % salt and 20°C are shown in Figure 2. 12 The lower temperatures and low salt concentration.
total amount of acids slowly increases at the ini- Dissolved carbon dioxide contributes to the desir-
tial fermentation stage and then sharply increases able fresh carbonated taste.6'21"23-45-47
at a certain point, and then again slowly increases
to about 1.2% (as percent of lactic acid). On the

other hand, the pH decreases to about 3.5 and then B. Changes in Ascorbic Acid and Other
stabilizes. With changes in the organic acid con- Vitamins
tent, the reducing sugars decrease sharply at the
initial fermentation stage (from about 1.9 to 0.5%) 1. Changes in Ascorbic Acid
and then gradually decrease until very little re-
mains. 12 However, the kimchi containing added The vitamin content in kimchi varies consid-
cereal or starch increases its sugar content by erably because of the kimchi variety, preparation
enzymic hydrolysis initially, and then the sugar methods, and preservation conditions. These vita-
content decreased by microbiological consump- mins may undergo various biochemical changes
tion during additional fermentation.35 The increase because of chemical reactions, enzymes, and mi-
in total acids and the decrease in pH are influ- croorganisms during fermentation and preserva-
enced significantly by the microorganisms in- tion. Although little is known about these changes,
volved, sugar content, salt concentration, and tem- studies on ascorbic acid have attracted the most
perature during fermentation. Generally, the attention.
decrease in pH tends to be more gradual than the The changes in ascorbic acid during baechu
increase in total acids, probably because of the kimchi fermentation (3.5% salt concentration and
buffering actions of protein and amino acids 7°C) are shown in Figure 5.114 The amount of
present in the kimchi. The most popular kimchi ascorbic acid present in the ingredients is about
has a pH range of 4.0 to 5.2 and about 0.6% total 15 mg, but this decreases gradually and then in-
acids.12-29-42-48-112 creases to about 18 mg. After 18 d of fermenta-
Marked changes occur among some of the tion, the amount of ascorbic acid decreases again.
sugars of the raw materials during fermentation. During the first 6 to 12 d of fermentation, the
Mannose, glucose, and galactose decrease with ascorbic acid decreases slightly, with an increase
fermentation time, while mannitol is formed ini- in lactic acid bacteria and a decrease in pH. How-
tially and then decreases during the later fermen- ever, at the later period (12 to 18 days) of fermen-
tation stage. The decrease in sugar during the tation, when the increase in microbial counts be-
initial stage is due primarily to the decrease of comes gradual, the amount of ascorbic acid reaches
glucose, which represents about 50% of the total its peak and again decreases. •14 On the other hand,
sugars.38-113 During fermentation, organic acids, in kaktugi fermented at 5% salt concentration and
mannitol, carbon dioxide, and dextran are formed, 20°C, the initial amount of ascorbic acid decreases
with a decrease in glucose and other sugars. Simi- with the initial fermentation and increases during
lar results were observed in sauerkraut, which has the ripening time to 16 to 19 mg, and then con-
been studied in detail.6-21-22-35 On the other hand, tinuously decreases when acidification of kimchi
free amino acids, especially glutamic acid, ala- occurs.51 Hence, the changes in ascorbic acid have
195
lower than that in anaerobic fermentation without
the addition of galacturonic acid. This may be
because of the destruction of ascorbic acid by
contact with air and to a low potential of biologi-
cal synthesis in aerobic conditions. In the kimchi
model, a pH range of 4.0 to 4.5 is considered
favorable for the biosynthesis and stability of
ascorbic acid. Generally, galacturonic acid is con-
verted from the glucose or pectin present in cab-
bage or radish. It also has been reported that
ascorbic acid can be biosynthesized from glucose
or galactose by related enzymes in plant tissue or
k i m c h i 112,116.117
O 5 10
Fermentation time, days There is no significant effect from the addi-
tion of protein products, such as beef extracts,
FIGURE 5. Changes in ascorbic acid content in kimchi fish protein, milk protein, and soybean protein
during fermentation at 7°C (salt, 3.5%). (From Lee, isolate, or of various sugars, such as glucose and
H. S., Ko, Y. T., and Lim, S. J., Korean J. Nutr., 17(2), sucrose, on the biosynthesis and stability of ascor-
105, 1984. With permission.) bic acid in the kimchi fermentation system. How-
ever, buffering agent mixtures of citric acid and
a different behavior, depending on the prepara- sodium citrate (1:9) promote the stability of ascor-
tion, especially the ingredients and fermentation bic acid in kimchi.103-n4>117 Also, ascorbic acid can
conditions as described before. Depending on the be destroyed by ascorbic acid oxidase present in
type of fermentation and related microorganisms, some ingredients or be decreased by salt treat-
the ascorbic acid contents may have a general ment during kimchi preparation.30-118 A certain
tendency to decrease in the beginning, increase amount of ascorbic acid is destroyed during the
during active fermentation, and then decrease canning process and decreases during the storage
later.103112-115 Ascorbic acid is present not only in of canned kimchi.35 The stability of ascorbic acid
solid tissue, but also in the kimchi liquid. In present in kimchi is affected by pH, dissolved
yeolmoo kimchi (young oriental radish kimchi), oxygen, garlic, and preservatives.35'113>115-116 There-
the ascorbic acid contents in both the solid and fore, changes in ascorbic acid content in kimchi
liquid portions become similar during the later during the preparation and preservation would be
part of fermentation.103 influenced by the kimchi variety, ingredients in
In model systems, the total vitamin C content the recipe (especially the major raw materials and
also decreases initially, increases to the initial spices), microorganisms, and environmental con-
level or more at a certain time, and then gradually ditions.
decreases later during the fermentation oîbaechu
kimchi. In these studies, the absolute amount of
biochemically synthesized ascorbic acid was about 2. Other Vitamins
52.1% of the initial value, and the addition of
galacturonic acid enhanced ascorbic acid synthe- Kimchi also contains various B and other
sis. Therefore, galacturonic acid may have a role vitamins. Changes in the vitamin B group in kimchi
as the precursor of ascorbic acid synthesis. during fermentation (3.25% salt concentration and
D-Galacturonic acid is hypothesized to be con- 2 to 7°C) are shown in Figure 6.112 In general, the
verted to L-galactono-lactone and then finally to contents of these vitamins increase gradually with
L-ascorbic acid by the related enzymes present in time from the initial fermentation stage, accumu-
the tissue or in the kimchi liquid.116 The total late to reach their maximum on day 21, and then
vitamin C content under aerobic fermentation with drastically decrease afterward. The vitamins B]
the addition of galacturonic acid in this model is and B 2 contents double during ripening, when
196
500
35
FIGURE 6. Changes in the B vitamin content in kimchi during fermentation

at 2 to 7°C (salt, 3.25%). (Modified from Lee, T. Y., Kim, J. S., Chung, D. H.,
and Kim, H. S., Bull. Sei. Res. Inst, 5, 43, 1960.)
kimchi becomes the most acceptable, and then This decreases slowly during the fermentation
decreases when acidification and softening occur. period and is reduced to about 50% of the initial
The decrease at this period differs, depending on value after optimum fermentation.2-112
the destruction rate.112 However, the vitamin B
group contents sometimes have a general ten-
dency to decrease after an increase during the C. Acidification and Softening
initial fermentation stage. Also, in other types of
kimchi fermented at 10°C, the amount of vitamin Although properly fermented kimchi has a
B 2 increases 156 to 173% of the initial amount mild acidic flavor and typical texture for con-
and then remains stable, even during the later sumption, these properties are changed by subse-
fermentation stages.115 quent fermentation and/or preservation under
The increase in the vitamin B group during undesirable conditions following optimum ripen-
the initial fermentation stage of kimchi may occur ing. Some compositional changes in the solid and
by biochemical synthesis due to microorganisms liquid portions of kimchi occur continuously.
that have not been fully identified. Therefore, the There can be a complete conversion of ferment-
vitamin B synthesis rate would be affected by the able sugars to acids and a severe breakdown of
species of microorganisms and the fermentation texture components. This results in overripened
conditions. A specific kimchi, which was inocu- or overfermented kimchi, which has an extremely
lated with one strain of Propionibacterium acidic taste and odor as well as a soft texture.
freundenreichii ss shermani and fermented at 4°C, Overripened kimchi is usually not desirable for
produced as much as four times the vitamin B12 as consumption and this explains the difficulty in
normal kimchi fermentation.119 preserving kimchi after the completion of proper
Kimchi also is an important source of caro- fermentation. Overripening most often occurs at
tene. The carotene content is affected more by the low salt concentrations or at high temperatures
raw ingredients, such as carrots, red pepper, etc. during extended fermentation and/or preservation.
197
1. Changes of Organic Acids and the initial fermentation stage and then gradually
Acidification disappears in the later fermentation stage. The
amount of succinic acid is high on day 2 and then
The most typical change that takes place dur- decreases slightly at day 7 of fermentation. For
ing kimchi fermentation is the production of or- volatile organic acids, acetic acid is the major
ganic acids, which are products of the conversion acid among propionic, butyric, valeric, caproic,
of fermentable sugars. Organic acids are produced and heptanoic acids.44-45 On the other hand, some
by enzymes in ingredients and those from micro- of the organic acids in the raw materials for kimchi
organisms involved in kimchi fermentation. There- preparation may be present mostly as organic
fore, an increase in organic acids and a related salts, and it was observed that these organic acid
decrease in pH are typical phenomena in kimchi salts were converted to free organic acids during
fermentation (see Figure 2). Accordingly, the fermentation.46
changes in organic acids depend on the kimchi For the mool kimchi (dongchimi) model, the
ingredients, related microorganisms, and the fer- acidity is increased drastically from day 2 during
mentation and preservation conditions.2-21"25-28 the 7-d fermentation period at lower salt concen-
Changes in organic acids in the baechu kimchi tration (1%) and relatively higher temperature
model with fermentation time are shown in (20°C). Along with an increase in acidity of the
Table 9.45 The major components of nonvolatile solid portion, the acidity in the liquid portion of
organic acids are lactic, succinic, fumaric, and kimchi also increases. With respect to the non-
malic acids. Their contents and relative composi- volatile organic acids, lactic acid is the major
tions vary according to the fermentation stage. organic acid and consistently increases with the
Lactic acid, which is the major nonvolatile or- fermentation time. However, the amount of suc-
ganic acid, is continuously synthesized from the cinic acid reaches its maximum on day 3 and then
initial fermentation stage and accumulates through- decreases afterward.48
out fermentation. Malic acid is produced during The production rate of nonvolatile to volatile
acids or the relative proportion of organic acids
TABLE 9 has a marked effect on kimchi odor and taste. The
Changes in Organic Acids in Baechu Kimchi
acidic flavor of overripened kimchi is due mainly
Model during Fermentation with 3% Salt
to lactic and acetic acids.44^8
Concentration at 12-16°C (mEq/100 g)
Fermentation period (days)

2. Changes in Texture and Softening
Organic acid 1 2 7
The typical texture of kimchi is produced
Nonvolatile organic acids
Lactic acid 0.19 0.83 1.64
through the processing of the raw materials and
Succinic acid 0.08 0.83 0.69 overall fermentation. The salt treatment of Chi-
Fumaric acid 0.04 Trace Trace nese cabbage for baechu kimchi preparation causes
Malic acid 1.04 0.09 Trace an increase in flexibility and chewing properties
Volatile organic acids and a decrease in crispness of the solid tissue.
Formic acid ND Trace ND These changes in texture are mainly the result of
Acetic acid 0.27 0.81 4.82
Propionic acid 1.51 1.50 1.62
changes in the physical structure caused by the
Butyric acid 0.44 0.76 0.68 loss of air and moisture within the tissue as well
Caproic acid 0.07 0.07 0.08 as changes in the chemical structure, especially in
Heptanoic acid 0.05 0.26 0.08 pectic substances and other cell wall components,
caused by the salt treatment.27-28120
Note: ND = not detectable.
The textural changes occur continuously dur-
From Ryu, J. Y., Lee, H. S., and Rhee, H. S., Korean ing fermentation and the acceptable texture is
J. Food Sei. Technol., 16(2), 171, 1984. With permis- achieved in properly ripened kimchi by an opti-
sion. mum fermentation process. However, further
198
biochemical and cytological changes occur in others.105-106121 Microorganisms and enzymes are
kimchi after extended fermentation and cause the well-documented agents for sauerkraut soften-
softening of solid tissue. In some cases, over- ing;21"23 however, little is known about those af-
ripened kimchi will be too soft for consumption. fecting kimchi. Accordingly, detailed studies are
Therefore, appropriate storage of quality kimchi needed on the breakdown of cell components and
is an important consideration. Changes in the tex- cell wall structure, the specific enzymes and mi-
ture of kaktugi during overfermentation result in croorganisms involved in softening, and related
similar softening. The softening of the solid por- environmental conditions throughout the overall
tion of kimchi is generally known to be affected softening processes of kimchi.
by salt concentration, temperature, oxygen, and
microorganisms.2>27>12°
Because kimchi softening usually occurs in VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
the later fermentation stages, microbial enzymes,
rather than enzymes of vegetable origin, may play Kimchi is a fermented Korean vegetable prod-
a major role in the softening. The most important uct prepared using major raw materials (Chinese
factor for kimchi softening may be the break- cabbage or oriental radish) and various other
down of pectic substances in the cabbage tissue. ingredients through the processes of grading, brin-
Kimchi softening occurs mainly by the action of ing, blending, and fermentation. Biochemical,
pectinolytic enzymes from microorganisms. microbiological, and nutritional characteristics of
Polygalacturonase especially is assumed to soften kimchi differ, depending on the kimchi variety,
cabbage or radish.105-107 The major microbial raw materials used, brining process, and the fer-
sources of softening enzymes of kimchi tissue mentation and preservation methods. Desirable
were discussed in the previous section. Table 10 recipes and general procedures for making kimchi
shows the changes of alcohol-insoluble solids, are well documented.
protopectin, pectic acid, and water-soluble pectin Kimchi is an important source of B vitamins,
in baechu kimchi during fermentation at 2% salt ascorbic acid, minerals, and dietary fiber, and
and 20°C.121 The amount of alcohol-insoluble properly ripened kimchi has a unique taste, fla-
solids and protopectin in this kimchi decreases, vor, and texture in addition to health-related func-
while pectic acid and water-soluble pectin in- tions. Kimchi fermentation is complex and is due
crease with fermentation time. Some attempts have mainly to certain lactic acid bacteria and yeasts
been made to control the kimchi softening with naturally present in the raw materials. Several
salt, temperature, preservatives, pH control, pre- physicochemical and biological factors, especially
heat treatment, calcium chloride treatment, and salt and sugar concentrations, temperature, expo-
sure to air, and population of desirable microor-
TABLE 10 ganisms, influence the growth of major microor-
Changes in Pectic Substances in Kimchi ganisms and their actions. After optimum ripening
during Fermentation with 2% Salt is reached, the fermentation may continue until
Concentration at 20°C the product has an acidic taste and softened tex-
ture, which cause the quality to deteriorate. To
Fermentation period (days) have an uniformly high quality, many alternatives
for controlling the fermentation and preservation
Pectic substances 0 3 7
have been proposed. However, it is more practical
Alcohol-insoluble solid (%) 2.7 2.0 1.5 to prepare kimchi using quality-control proce-
Protopectin (mg%) 140.4 110.5 54.0
dures, after which the ripened kimchi is stored
Pectic acid (mg%) 159.3 157.5 208.5 and distributed under a low-temperature system.
Water-soluble pectin (mg%) 189.0 657.0 433.5 Complex biochemical changes occur during
kimchi processing, and those changes are associ-
From Kim, S. D., Lee, S. H., Kim, M. J., and Oh, Y. A., J.
ated directly with the nutritional and organoleptical
Korean Soc. Food Nutr., 17(3), 257, 1988. With permis-
sion. properties of the product. The studies reviewed in
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biochemical, microbiological, and nutritional as- Processing and Preservation, Soohaksa, Seoul, 1991,
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Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Biochemical, microbiological, and nutritional aspects

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Biochemical, Microbiological, and Nutritional

I. INTRODUCTION the ancient past. It is estimated that a salted veg-

Kimchi also can be classified as: ordinary,

Classification Varieties of kimchi

Ordinary kimchi Baechu (cut Chinese cabbage)

Mool kimchi Baik (baechu kimchi with added water)

Note for the major characteristics: ordinary kimchi is usually

Groups Raw materials

Major raw materials Baechu (Chinese cabbage), radish, ponytail radish,

Red pepper, garlic,

Other vegetables, fruits, Blending

seafoods, cereals, nuts, Slicing or

FIGURE 1. Flow chart for production of baechu kimchi.

Raw Baechu Baik

Chinese cabbage 80.0 80.0

Note: Salt required for brining is not indicated in this table.

e. Dongchimi (Whole Oriental Radish

in a flat bowl. On top of each leaf, the premixture

Salt concentration (%)

From Mheen, T. I. and Kwon, T. W., Korean J. Food Sei. Technol.,

Storage period (days)

Heat treated at 60°C for 10 min 0.56 0.58 0.58

Modified from Lee, Y. H. and Yang, I. W., J. Korean Agrie.

mentation or overfermentation after ripening may

Components Baechu kimchi Kaktugi Dongchimi

Moisture (g) 88.4 87.0 93.6

From Office of Rural Development (ORD), Food Composition

Ammo acids pickled seafood pickied se

Lysine 0.21 1.10

Alanine 0.52 0.86

From Cho, Y. and Rhee, H. S., Korean J. Food Sc!. Technoi,

Organic acids 4 days 8 days 4 days 8 days

Lactic acid 24.42 40.94 19.52 31.58

Maleic acid 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.04

Note: ND = not detectable.

From Kim, S. Y. and Kim, K. D., Korean J. Food Sei.

and the extracts of garlic used as kimchi ingredi-

the fermentation. L. sake and L. brevis also are C3

and could not survive under pH 4.0 in the later

life. In general, as the fermentation temperature room temperature is dominated by L. plantarum

to about 1.2% (as percent of lactic acid). On the

FIGURE 6. Changes in the B vitamin content in kimchi during fermentation

Fermentation period (days)

1989. ent garlic contents during fermentation, Korean J.

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