Chapter 2:

Rainfall
2.1 Definition of Rainfall/Precipitation
2.2 Measurement of Rainfall
2.3 Rainfall Data Analysis
2.3.1 Filling in Missing Data
2.3.2 Point Station Analysis
2.3.3 Areal Distribution Analysis

ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology

 2.1 Rainfall / Precipitation (Curahan)

• Precipitation can be defined as the

formation of droplets in clouds that
falls on continental areas as rainfall,
sleet, snow, hail, fog and dew which
depends on temperature.

ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology

• Rain : Drops of fresh water that fall as precipitation from clouds
• Snow : Precipitation falling from clouds in the form of ice crystals
• Sleet : Partially melted snow
• Hail : precipitate as small ice particles
• Fog : Droplets of water vapour suspended in the air near the ground
• Dew : Water that has condensed on a cool surface overnight from water
vapour in the air
ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology
 Why is precipitation so
important in hydrology?

Precipitation is the main input of

water for the Hydrology System
and it is essential for the
input-output analysis

ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology

 2.2 Measurement of Precipitation

Spatial
Ground
Measurement
Measure-
ment
Raingauge (tolok
hujan)
Radar
Need to check and
measure the rainfall
amount everyday

Satellites

ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology

 Ground Measurement
• A variety of instruments and techniques have been developed for
measuring amount and intensity of precipitation.

• All forms of precipitation are measured on the basis of the water vertical
depth (mm)

• Why are the characteristics of the rainfall (a form of precipitation) attracting

the interest of a hydrologist?
- rainfall is the main input to the hydrology system, which will affect
the water storage in the system, the processes and the interaction
in managing the catchment area.
- effective planning and management can be done based on the
interpretation on the rainfall data
- observation on the catchment response can be carried out when
there is rainfall, which will affect the behaviour of river, lake,
estuary, etc

ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology

 The graduated cylinder is
very simple, with a funnel
that leads into a narrow
cylinder (usually clear), with
markings regarding the
amount of precipitation.

ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology

 Standard raingauge
ECB 2123 Engineering Hydrology
Tipping bucket Raingauge station
 Tipping-Bucket: Demonstration

From the Automated Flood Warning System web site.

ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology
Tipping-Bucket: Demonstration
 Spatial Measurement
• Provides data in real-time but ground level gauges needed for calibration

• Ability to detect involved area, storm orientation and movement,

precipitation rate and total rainfall

• Useful in large and difficult accessed area

• Can give instant precipitation mapping of areas up to thousands km2

• Principles: radar and satellite will observe the wave reflected by

precipitation particles

ECC 3423 Engineering Hydrology

Radar image

Doppler radar station

 Doppler Radar
In the image above, the grey line is the transmitted signal. You can see how the returned energy changes its
wavelength characteristics when it hits a target moving away or toward the radar (red and green line,
respectively)
Dual-Pol Doppler Radar
New upgrade to the original
Doppler radar technology.  The upgrade helps better determine the type
and intensity of precipitation and how much
may fall. It can also help tell the difference
between smoke, bats, birds, bugs, and confirm
that tornadoes are on the ground causing
damage.
 With dual-pol doppler radar, the pulse of
electromagnetic wave fields is sent out in both
horizontal and vertical directions. We now get
a two-dimensional picture and the computers
analyzing the signal can better measure the size
and shape of the object the signal bounced off
 2.3 Rainfall Data Analysis
Precipitation is the main input of water for the hydrology System. For any input-output relationship
analysis in the hydrology system, it needs input data interpretation.

• Rainfall events are recorded • For a wide catchment area,

by gauges at specific a number of rainfall
locations readings are needed to
estimate the precipitation
of that area so that the
spatial distribution can be
taken into account.

Point Areal
Rainfall Rainfall

ECB 2123 Engineering Hydrology

Data 1950-1985
Rujukan: Water Resources
Publication no. 19, JPS
Data 1950-1985
Rujukan: Water Resources
Publication no. 19, JPS

ECB 2123 Engineering Hydrology

ECB 2123 Engineering Hydrology
 2.3.1 Filling in Missing Data
• Sometimes hydrologist need to estimate missing data or data that are not
reliable.

• There are a few methods for estimating missing data from the record at
precipitation stations such as :

Arithmetic Mean Method (Kaedah Purata Kira-kira)

Normal Ratio Method (Kaedah Nisbah Normal)

Quadrant Method (Kaedah Empat Sukuan)

Arithmetic Mean Method (Kaedah Purata Kira-kira)
Estimating Missing Data
  𝑃 𝐴 + 𝑃 𝐵 + 𝑃𝐶
𝑃 𝑥=
3

x
Normal Ratio Method (Kaedah Nisbah Normal)

  𝐴 𝑥 𝑖=𝑛 𝑃𝑖 𝐴 𝑥 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃𝑛
¿ 𝑃 𝑥= ∑ =
( + +…
𝑛 𝑖=1 𝐴 𝑖 𝑛 𝐴 1 𝐴 2 𝐴𝑛 )
  Alternatively

(normal annual or monthly rain at gage i)

Quadrant Method (Kaedah Sukuan)

1
¿  𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑖= 4 𝑖= 4
1 𝑃
∑ (𝑑 ¿¿ 𝑖)2 ∑ (𝑑 ¿¿𝑖𝑖)2 ¿ ¿
𝑖=1 ❑ 𝑖=1 ❑
Example:
 2.3.2 Point Station Analysis

• Precipitation events are recorded by gauges at specific locations. The data

could be determine the frequency and characteristics of precipitation
events within the site vicinity.

Estimate areal
variability of
rain in
specific area

Derive intensity- Develop design storm

duration-frequency Point characteristics for
curves (trend) on a precipitation small urban or other
specific location data watersheds
• From the rainfall records, time series analysis could be performed.
Stationarity for the specific series of data are important if using statistic
for the analysis work. Stationarity here means the statistic parameters
(i.e. average and variance) are unchanged in the variation of time.

• Non-stationarity occurs in the data series when there is

non-homogeneity in the record.

• Non-homogeneity and inconsistency present in the rainfall record data

series if sudden variation occurs in the hydrologic eco-system or the
changes of station location or the measurement technique has been
changed.

• Among the variations in the hydrology eco-system are blaze in

catchment area, forest destruction, earthquake etc.
 Non-
Non-stationarity homogeneity /
inconsistency

To identify all these problems, a number of analysis methods have to be carried out in order to reorganise & update the rainfall
records.
(i) Hyetograph (Carta Bar)
(ii) Mass Curve (Lengkung Jisim)
(iii) Moving Means Plot (Plot Purata Bergerak)
(iv) Residual Mass Curve (Lengkung Baki Jisim)
(v) Double Mass Curve (Lengkung Jisim Berkembar)
Hyetograph - is a plot of rainfall depth (mm) or rainfall intensity
(mm/hr) with time (i.e hourly, daily, weekly, monthly etc)
 2.3.3 Areal Distribution Analysis

(i) The Arithmetic Mean

For a wide catchment
area, a number of (ii) The Thiessen Polygon
Areal precipitation is There are many
more required in
rainfall readings are
methods to estimate
(iii) The Isohyetal Method
needed to estimate the
hydrologic research areal precipitation
precipitation of that
compared to point based on rainfall
area so that the spatial
precipitation measurement:
distribution can be
taken into account
The Arithmetic Mean

• Simplest objective method of calculating the average rainfall over an area

but is not very accurate

• The rainfall stations used in the calculations are usually those inside the
catchment area, but neighbouring gauges outside the boundary may be
included if it is considered that the measurements are representative of the
nearby parts of the catchment

• The arithmetic mean gives a very satisfactory measure of the areal rainfall
under the following conditions:
(i) the catchment area is sampled by many uniformly spaced
rain gauges
(ii) the area has no marked diversity in topographic characteristics,
so that the range in altitude is small and hence variation in the
rainfall amounts is minimal.
The Thiessen Polygon

• Developed by an American engineer (Thiessen, 1911)

• The rainfall measurements at individual gauges are first weighted by the

fractions of the catchment are represented by the gauges and then summed
1

3
The Isohyetal Method

• This is considered one of the most accurate methods but it is subjective and
dependent on skilled, experienced analysts having a good knowledge of the
rainfall characteristics of the region

• The isohyetal method is applied by plotting the station locations and amounts
on a suitable map and contours of equal precipitation are then drawn

• For area with many data, a computer with plotting facilities can carry out
plotting and calculating of precipitation
ECB 2123 Engineering Hydrology
Thank you