Week 2

Area
INTRODUCTION
There are a number of important reasons for determining areas. One is to
include the acreage of a parcel of land in the deed describing the property. Other
purposes are to determine the acreage of fields, lakes, etc., or the number of
square yards to be surfaced, paved, seeded, or sodded. Another important
application is determining end areas for earthwork volume calculations.
In plane surveying, area is considered to be the orthogonal projection of
the surface onto a horizontal plane. In the English system the most commonly
used units for specifying small areas are the ft² and yd², and for large tracts the
acre is most often used. In the metric system, smaller areas are usually given in
m² and for larger tracts hectares are commonly used, where 1 hectare is
equivalent to a square having sides of 100 m, and thus equals 10,000 m².

METHODS OF MEASURING AREA

Fundamentals of Surveying
Both field and map measurements are used to determine area. Field
measurement methods are the more accurate and include (1) division of the tract
into simple figures (triangles, rectangles, and trapezoids), (2) offsets from a
straight line, (3) coordinates, and (4) double-meridian distances.

(1) AREA BY DIVISION INTO SIMPLE FIGURES

A tract can usually be divided into simple geometric figures such as triangles,
rectangles, or trapezoids. The sides and angles of these figures can be observed in
the field and their individual areas calculated and totaled. An example of a parcel
subdivided into triangles is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1:

Area determination by
triangles

1
 Formulas for computing areas of rectangles and trapezoids are well known.
The area of a triangle whose lengths of sides are known can be computed by the
formula

where a, b, and c are the lengths of sides of the triangle and s = ½(a + b + c).
Another formula for the area of a triangle is

where C is the angle included between sides a and b.

(2) AREA BY OFFSETS FROM STRAIGHT LINES

Irregular tracts can be reduced to a series of trapezoids by observing right-
angle offsets from points along a reference line. The reference line is usually
marked by stationing, and positions where offsets are observed are given by their
Fundamentals of Surveying

stations and pluses. The spacing between offsets may be either regular or
irregular, depending on the conditions.

(2a)Regularly Spaced Offsets

Offsets at regularly spaced intervals are shown in Figure 2. For this case, the
area is found by the formula

where b is the length of a common interval between offsets, and h 0, h1,…. hn are
the offsets. The regular interval for the example of Figure 2 is a half-station, or 50
ft.

Figure 2:

Area by offsets

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Example: Compute the area of the tract shown in Figure 2.

Solution:

Simpson’s One-Third Rule

If the boundaries are found to be curved, Simpson’s one-third rule (which
is based on the assumption that the boundary lines are parabolic in shape) is
considered better to use than the trapezoidal rule. We will assume that the offsets
are evenly spaced. The rule is applicable to areas that have an odd number of offsets.
If there is an even number of offsets, the area of all but the part between the last two
offsets (or the first two) may be determined with the rule. That remaining area is
determined separately, ordinarily assuming it to be a trapezoid.

With reference to Figure 3, Simpson’s rule is as follows:

Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 3:

Simpson’s One-
Third Rule

Area = Δx/3[(y0 +y6)] + 2(y2 +y4 +y6) + 4(y1 + y3 + y5)

The area is equal to one-third of the common interval between offsets, multiplied by
the sum of the first and last offsets, plus two times the sum of the other odd offsets,
plus four times the sum of the even offsets.

3
 (2b) Irregularly Spaced Offsets
For irregularly curved boundaries like that in Figure 4, the spacing of offsets along
the reference line varies. Spacing should be selected so that the curved boundary
is accurately defined when adjacent offset points on it are connected by straight
lines. A formula for calculating area for this case is

Where a, b, c, …. are the varying offset spaces, and h 0, h1, h2, … are the observed
offsets.

Figure 4:

Area by offsets
Fundamentals of Surveying

Example: Compute the area of the tract shown in Figure 3.

Solution:

(3) AREA BY COORDINATES

Computation of area within a closed polygon is most frequently done by
the coordinate method. In this procedure, coordinates of each angle point in the
figure
must be known. They are normally obtained by traversing, although any method
that yields the coordinates of these points is appropriate. If traversing is used,
coordinates of the stations are computed after adjustment of the departures and
latitudes. The coordinate method is easily visualized; it reduces to one simple
equation that applies to all geometric configurations of closed polygons and is
readily programmed for computer solution.
4 The procedure for computing areas by coordinates can be developed with
reference to Figure 5.
 Figure 5:

Area computation
by coordinate
method

As shown in that figure, it is convenient (but not necessary) to adopt a reference

coordinate system with the X and Y axes passing through the most southerly and
the most westerly traverse stations, respectively. Lines BB’, CC’, DD’ and EE’ in the

Fundamentals of Surveying
figure are constructed perpendicular to the Y axis. These lines create a series of
trapezoids and triangles (shown by different color shadings). The area enclosed
with traverse ABCDEA can be expressed in terms of the areas of these individual
trapezoids and triangles as

The area of each trapezoid, for example E’EDD’E’ can be expressed in terms of
lengths as

In terms of coordinate values, this same area is

Each of the trapezoids and triangles can be expressed by coordinates in a similar

manner. Substituting these coordinate expressions into the above equations and
multiplying by 2 to clear fractions, and rearranging
5
 It can be reduced to an easily remembered form by listing the X and Y coordinates
of each point in succession in two columns, as shown below with coordinates of
the starting point repeated at the end. The products noted by diagonal arrows are
ascertained with dashed arrows considered plus and solid ones minus. The
algebraic summation of all products is computed and its absolute value divided by 2
to get the area.

Example
Figure 6 illustrates the same traverse as Figure 5. Coordinate values are shown in
the figure. Compute the traverse area by the coordinate method. (Units are feet.)
Fundamentals of Surveying

Figure 6:

Traverse for
computation of
area by
coordinates

6
 (4) AREA BY DOUBLE-MERIDIAN DISTANCE METHOD
The area within a closed figure can also be computed by the double-

Fundamentals of Surveying
meridian distance (DMD) method. This procedure requires balanced departures
and latitudes of the tract’s boundary lines, which are normally obtained in
traverse computations. The DMD method is not as commonly used as the
coordinate method because it is not as convenient, but given the data from an
adjusted traverse, it will yield the same answer. The DMD method is useful for
checking answers obtained by the coordinate method when performing hand
computations.
By definition, the meridian distance of a traverse course is the perpendicular
distance from the midpoint of the course to the reference meridian. To ease the
problem of signs, a reference meridian usually is placed through the most
westerly traverse station.
In Figure 7, the meridian distances of courses AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA are
MM’, PP’, QQ’, RR’, and TT’ respectively. To express PP’ in terms of convenient
distances, MF and BG are drawn perpendicular to PP’. Then

Thus, the meridian distance for any course of a traverse equals the
meridian distance of the preceding course plus one half the departure of the
preceding course plus half the departure of the course itself. It is simpler to
employ full departures of courses. Therefore, DMDs equal to twice the meridian
distances that are used, and a single division by 2 is made at the end of the 7
computation.
 Figure 7:

Meridian
distances
and traverse area
computation by
DMD method.
Fundamentals of Surveying

Based on the considerations described, the following general rule can be

applied in calculating DMDs: The DMD for any traverse course is equal to the DMD
of the preceding course, plus the departure of the preceding course, plus the
departure of the course itself. Signs of the departures must be considered. When
the reference meridian is taken through the most westerly station of a closed
traverse and calculations of the DMDs are started with a course through that
station, the DMD of the first course is its departure. Applying these rules, for the
traverse in Figure 7.

A check on all computations is obtained if the DMD of the last course, after
computing around the traverse, is also equal to its departure but has the opposite
sign. If there is a difference, the departures were not correctly adjusted before
starting, or a mistake was made in the computations. With reference to Figure 7,
the area enclosed by traverse ABCDEA may be expressed in terms of trapezoid
areas (shown by different color shadings) as

8
 The area of each figure equals the meridian distance of a course times its
balanced latitude. For example, the area of trapezoid C’CDD’C’ = Q’Q x C’D’, where
Q’Q and C’D’ are the meridian distance and latitude, respectively, of line CD. The
DMD of a course multiplied by its latitude equals double the area. Thus, the
algebraic summation of all double areas gives twice the area inside the entire
traverse. Signs of the products of DMDs and latitudes must be considered. If the
reference line is passed through the most westerly station, all DMDs are positive.
The products of DMDs and north latitudes are therefore plus and those of DMDs
and south latitudes are minus.

Example:
Using the DMDs, calculate the area within the traverse in Figure 6

Solution:

Fundamentals of Surveying

9
 Tacheometry
General
Tacheometry (or Tachemetry or Telemetry) is a branch of angular
surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances, of points are obtained by
optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process of measurements by
tape or chain. The method is very rapid and convenient. Although the accuracy of
Tacheometry in general compares unfavourably with that of chaining, it is best
adopted in obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of
water or swamp and so on, which make chaining difficult or impossible. The
accuracy attained is such that under favourable conditions the error will not
exceed 1/1000, and if the purpose of a survey does not require greater accuracy,
the method is unexcelled. The primary object of tacheometry is the preparation of
contoured maps or plans requiring both the horizontal as well as vertical control.
Also, on surveys of higher accuracy, it provides a check on distances measured
with the tape.
Fundamentals of Surveying

Instruments
An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally
used for tacheometric survey. The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one
stadia hair above and the other an equal distance below the horizontal cross-hair,
the stadia hairs being mounted in the same ring and in the same vertical plane as
the horizontal and vertical cross-hairs. Fig. 8 shows the different forms of stadia
diaphragm commonly used.

Figure 8:

Various patterns
of stadia
diaphragm

The telescope used in stadia surveying are of three kinds :

(1) the simple external-focusing telescope.
(2) the external-focusing anallactic telescope (Porro's telescope)
10 (3) the internal-focusing telescope.
The first type is known as stadia theodolite, while the second type is known as
'tacheometer'. The 'tacheometer' (as such) has the advantage over the first and the
third type due to the fact that the additive constant of the instrument is zero.
However, the. internal focusing telescope is becoming more popular, though it has
a very small additive constant. Some of the latest patterns of internal focusing
telescope may be regarded as strictly anallactic.
A tacheometer must essentially incorporate the following features :
(1) The multiplying constant should have a nominal value of 100 and the error
contained in this value should not exceed 1 in 1000.
(2) The axial horizontal line should be exactly midway between the other two
lines. ·
(3) The telescope should be truly anallactic.
(4) The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30 diameters.
The aperture of the objective should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter in order to have
a sufficiently bright image.
For small distances (say up to 100 meters), ordinary levelling staff may be
used. For greater distances a stadia rod may be used. A stadia rod is usually of one
piece, having 3 to 5 meters length. The pattern of graduations. should be bold and
simple. Fig. 9 shows two typical patterns of graduations. For smaller distances, a
stadia rod graduated in 5 mm (i.e. 0.005 m) may be used, while for longer
distances, the rod may be graduated in 1 cm (i.e. 0.01 m).

Fundamentals of Surveying
Figure 9:

Stadia rods

DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF TACHEOMETRIC MEASUREMENT SURVEYING

The various systems of tacheometric survey may be classified as follows
(1) The stadia system
(a) Fixed Hair method or Stadia method 11
(b) Movable Hair method, or Subtense method.
(2) The tangential system.
(3) Measurements by means of special instruments.
 The principle common to all the systems is to calculate the horizontal
distance between two points A and B and their difference in elevation, by
observing (i) the angle at the instrument at A subtended by a known short
distance along a staff kept at B, and (ii) the vertical angle to B from A.
In this lecture, we will only tackle the fixed hair method. In this method,
observation mentioned above is made with the help of a stadia diaphragm having
stadia wires at fixed or constant distance apart. The readings on the staff
corresponding to all the three wires are taken. The staff intercept, i.e. the
difference of the readings corresponding to top and bottom stadia wires will
therefore, depend on the distance of the staff from the instrument.

PRINCIPLE OF STADIA METHOD

The stadia method is based on the principle that the ratio of the perpendicular to
the base is constant in similar isosceles triangles. In Figure 10a, let two rays OA
and OB be equally inclined to the central ray OC. Let A2B2, A1B1, and AB be the staff
intercepts. Evidently,

OC2/A2B2 = OC1/A1B1 = OC/AB

= constant k = ½ cot (β/2)
Fundamentals of Surveying

This constant k entirely depends upon the magnitude of the angle β· If β is

made equal to 34° 22".64, the constant k = 1/2 cot 17' 11".32 = 100. In this case,
the distance between the staff and the point O will be 100 times the staff intercept.
In actual practice, observations may be made with either horizontal line of sight
or with inclined line of sight.

Figure 10:

Principle of
Stadia Method

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Horizontal Sight.
Consider Figure 10b in which 0 is the optical center of the objective of an
external focusing telescope.

Let A, C and B = The points cut by the three lines of sight corresponding to the
three wires.
b, c and a= Top, axial and bottom hairs of the diaphragm.
ab = i = interval between the stadia hairs (stadia interval)
AB = s = staff intercept
f = focal length of the objective
f1 = Horizontal distance of the staff from the optical center of the objective.
f2 = Horizontal distance of the cross-wires from 0.
d = Distance of the vertical axis of the instrument from 0.
D = Horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical axis of the instrument.
M = Centre of the instrument, corresponding to the vertical axis.

Since the rays BOb and AOa pass through the optical center. they are straight so
triangle AOB and aOb are similar. Hence

Fundamentals of Surveying
f1/f2 = s/i

Again, since f1 and f2, are conjugate focal distances, we have from lens formula,

1/f = 1/f2 + 1/f1

Multiplying throughout by ff1, we get f1 = (f1/f2)f + f

Substituting the values of f1/f2 = s/i in the above we get,

f1 = (s/i)f + f

The horizontal distance between the axis and the staff is

D = f1 + d
Or D = (f/i)s + (f+d) = ks +C

The above equation is known as the distance equation. In order to get the
horizontal distance, therefore, the staff intercept s is to be found by subtracting
the staff readings corresponding to the top and bottom stadia hairs.

The constant k = f /i is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor

and the constant (f+ d) = C is known as the additive constant of the instrument.
13
 DISTANCE AND ELEVATION FORMULAE FOR STAFF VERTICAL: INCLINED
SIGHT
Let
P = Instrument station
Q =Staff station
M = Position of instruments axis
0 = Optical centre of the objective
A, C, B =Points. corresponding to the readings of the three hairs
s = AB = Staff intercept
i =Stadia interval
θ = Inclination of the line of sight from the horizontal
L = Length MC measured along the line of sight
D = MQ' =Horizontal distance between the instrument and the staff
V =Vertical intercept, at Q, between the line of sight and the horizontal line.
h = Height of the instrument
r = Central hair reading
β = Angle between the two extreme rays corresponding to stadia hairs.

Draw a line A'CB' (Fig. 11) normal to the line of sight OC.
Fundamentals of Surveying

Figure 11:

Vertical Sight

∠AA’C = ∠BB’C = 90°

From ΔACA', A'C = ACcosθ or A'B' = ABcosθ = s cosθ

Since the line A' B' is perpendicular to the line of sight OC, we have

MC = L = k. A'B' + C = k s cosθ + C

The horizontal distance

D = L cosθ = (k s cosθ + C) cosθ
Or D = k s cos2θ + C cosθ
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Similarly,
V=L sinθ =;(k s cosθ + C) sin θ = k s cosθ. Sinθ + C sinθ
Or V = k s (sin2θ/2) + C sinθ
The Equations for D and V are the distance and elevation formula for inclined line
of sight.

STADIA FIELD WORK

General Arrangement of Field Work.
The tacheometric survey can be put to a great variety of uses, the principal
being the following:

1. Plane surveying involving location of points in plan, but no elevations.

2. Rapid sectioning on steep ground, involving elevations of points and their
location along a line.
3. Topography, involving elevations. of points as well as their location in plan.
4. Contouring, involving the location or setting out and surveying of level contour
lines.

When stadia methods are to be used for filling in detail, adequate control
are highly desirable. It is advisable to carry out the following preliminary

Fundamentals of Surveying
operations:

1. To establish a sufficient number of well-selected stations for exercising

horizontal control.
2. To determine the reduced level of these stations.
3. To determine the position of at least one control point with respect to some
well established station (e.g. a nearby trig-station) whose co-ordinates are known.

For vast surveys, horizontal control points are as a rule fixed by a

triangulation, but occasionally, a combination of triangulation and traversing may
be employed with advantage. When the tract to be surveyed is sufficiently narrow
that half of its breadth is within the sighting range of the instrument, the survey
can be controlled by an open traverse approximately along the center line of the
strip. For moderate areas, the arrangement may consist of a single main traverse
from which numerous circuits are projected. When the survey is too broad on a
single traverse, the control may be furnished either by a triangulation or by a
series of traverse.

Triangulation
If triangulation is used to fix the horizontal control points (or tacheometer
stations) the first step is the establishment of a suitable base. This may be
accomplished:

1. By making use of major control points such as trig-stations. 15

2. By measurement with a steel tape.
3. By subtense measurement.
 The first method is the most suitable and accurate if a pair of convenient trig-
stations within early reach of the area to be surveyed, since the length of the line
joining them and its bearing are known precisely. Second method may be used if
such stations are not situated nearby. The third method of establishing the base
by subtense measurement can be employed in any sort of difficult country.

Traversing
The lengths of the traverse courses may be measured either by tape or
tacheometrically. Similarly, the elevations of the instrument stations can be
determined, either by spirit levelling or by tacheometrical levelling, depending
upon the degree of accuracy required. The tacheometric methods for determining
the lengths of traverse line and the elevations of stations can be used only in small-
scale work.

Tacheometer Stations
It is desirable that main stations should be fixed and surveyed before the
techeometric detail work is pursued. The best tacheometer station is one which
commands a clear view of the area to be surveyed within the range of
observations. With regard to elevation, it should be so suited that the use of large
Fundamentals of Surveying

vertical angles is avoided. The great majority of tacheometer stations are

generally the stadia traverse station. Skill in selecting the best stations is largely
the result of observations and experience.

Field Party
For surveys of small extents, a surveyor and a staffman are sufficient; but for
surveys of large extent in a rough country, the field party may consist of:

1. The Surveyor or Chief of the party for the over-all control of the survey.
2. The instrument man to take the actual observations.
3. The recorder to record the reading taken by the instrumentman
4. Two or four staffmen, depending upon the expertness of the instrument man.
5. Labourers for clearing and transport.

Tacheometric Observations.
The following are the usual operations:

(1) Setting up the instrument: This consists of :

(a) Setting the instrument exactly over the station mark, and
(b) Levelling it carefully.
The instrument should first be levelled up with respect to the plate levels and then
with respect to the altitude bubble. In general, if the altitude bubble deviates only
by one division during a complete revolution of the instrument about its vertical
16 axis, the instrument may be regarded as level. However, for all important
observations, the bubble should be central when the middle hair is read.
(2) Measuring the height of the instrument. The height of the instrument (H.l.)
is the vertical distance from the top of the peg to the center of the object glass and
should be measured with the vertical Vernier set to zero and the altitude bubble
central. This observation is very important since all observations for altitude are
practically worthless unless the height of axis is recorded.

(3) Orienting the instrument: Since a number of rays or directions of sight may
emerge from one station, the instrument should be properly oriented when zero
is clamped on the horizontal circle. The reference line passing through the
instrument may be a true meridian or magnetic meridian or arbitrary meridian. If
the reference line is a true meridian or magnetic meridian, reading on the
horizontal circle should be zero when the line of sight along that meridian and the
angles to different rays or directions will directly be their whole circle bearings.
If, however, the instrument is oriented with reference to another station of the
survey, the circle should read the bearing of this station when the line of sight is
directed to it. Once an instrument bas been correctly oriented, the position of the
circle should not be disturbed until all the readings at the station are completed.

(4) Observing staff held on bench mark: In order to know the elevation of the center

Fundamentals of Surveying
of the instrument, the staff should be kept on the nearest B.M. and tacheometric
observations should be taken to the staff. If the B. M. is not nearby, the staff should
be observed on a point of known elevation, or flying levels may be run from the
B.M. to establish one near the area.

(5) Observations of distance and altitude: In order to know the horizontal distance
and elevation of the representative points. the following observations are made
on the staff:
(i) Stadia hair readings
(ii) Axial hair readings
(iii) Angle of elevation or depression of line of sight.

17
 Laboratory Exercises:

Laboratory Exercise #14: Determining Area of a Field with Irregular / Curved

Boundary
 This is a group activity
 Simulate conducting an area computation with the following data

Group 1 and 2:
The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10 meters
interval from a survey line to an irregular boundary line:
3.25, 5.60, 4.20, 6.65, 8.75, 6.20, 3.25 4.20, 5.65, 3.33.

Group 3 and 4:
The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10 meters
interval from a survey line to an irregular boundary line:
2.25, 4.50, 4.20, 7.60, 8.06, 5.90, 3.33 4.80, 5.90, 4.0.

 Use the procedure and tables in your lab manual (page 151)
Fundamentals of Surveying

 Submit the laboratory report on pdf format

Laboratory Exercise #15: Determination of Stadia Interval Factor

 This is a group activity
 Simulate peeking in a transit and the following observations are
made on a vertically held rod in a distance:

For all groups:

Horizontal
Vertical
Observations Distance in Intercept
Angle
meters
1 50 +3°48’ 0.5m
2 100 +1°06’ 1m
3 150 +0°36’ 1.5m
Use C = 0.3m

 Use the procedure and tables in your lab manual (page 163)
 Submit the laboratory report on pdf format

Laboratory Exercise #16: Inclined Stadia Sight

 This is a group activity
 From the data given and computed in Laboratory Exercise #15,
18 Determine the horizontal distance, Vertical distance and inclined
distance for the setup below:
 Instrument Station = A
Station of Rod = B
Upper stadia hair reading = 1.65m
Lower stadia hair reading = 1.45m
Vertical angle reading = 11°24’35”

 Use the procedure and tables in your lab manual (page 167)
 Submit the laboratory report on pdf format

Laboratory Exercise #17: Stadia Leveling

 This is a group activity
 From the data of Laboratory Exercise #4: Differential Leveling,
simulate the reading of upper and lower stadia hair readings to
determine the elevation of points.
 Use the procedure and tables in your lab manual (page 171)
 Submit the laboratory report on pdf format

Fundamentals of Surveying
Quiz #1:
Two distances of 20 and 100 meters were accurately measured out and the
intercepts on the rod between the outer stadia webs were O.196 m at the former
distance and 0. 996m at the latter. Calculate the tacheometric constants (k and C).

Quiz #2:
Determine the area of the lot of a closed-polygon traverse whose corners have the
following X and Y coordinates (in meters): A (8000.000, 5000.000); B (2650.000,
4702.906); C (1752.028, 2015.453); D (1912.303, 1511.635). Use Area by
Coordinates

Quiz #3:
From Quiz #2, determine the area by DMD method.

19