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 Areas Enclosed by Irregular Lines

 For such cases only approximate results can


be achieved. However, methods are adopted
which will give the best approximations.
 Give and Take Lines
 In this method an irregular-sided figure is divided into
triangles or trapezia, the irregular boundaries being replaced
by straight lines such that any small areas excluded from the
survey by the lines are balanced by other small areas outside
the survey but included as shown in fig. 4.3. The area is then
calculated using one of the straight-sided methods.
Graphical Method
 This method involves the use of a
transparent overlay of squared paper, which
is laid over the drawing or plan. The
number of squares and parts of squares
that are enclosed by the area is counted
and, knowing the plan scale, the area
represented by each square is known and
hence the total area can be computed. This
can be a very accurate method if a small
grid is used.
 The following two methods make a
mathematical attempt to calculate the area of
an irregular-sided figure.
 Trapezoidal rule Fig. 4.4 shows a control
network contained inside an area having
irregular sides. The shaded area is that
remaining to be calculated after using one of
the straight-sided methods to calculate the
area enclosed by the control network lines.
 Fig. 4.5 shows an enlargement of a section of
fig. 4.4. The offsets 01, 02, 03....and so on are
either measured directly in the field or scaled
from a plan.

The trapezoidal rule
 The trapezoidal rule assumes that if the
interval between the offsets is small, the
boundary can be approximated to a straight
line between the offsets. Hence, Fig. 3.5 is
assumed to be made up of a series of
trapezia as shown in Fig. 3.6.
 Therefore, in Fig. 4.6
 A1, = (01+02) L ; A2 = (02 + 03) L, etc
 2 2
 Hence, for N offsets, the total area (A) is
given by:

 A = (O1 + O2) L + (O2 + O3) L + ... + (ON-1+ ON) L
 2 2 2
 This leads to the general trapezoidal rule
shown below

 A= ½ L(O1+ON+2(O2+O3+O4+ ...+ ON-1))
 The trapezoidal rule applies to any number of
offsets.
 Question
 The following offsets, 8 m apart, were measured at
right angles from a traverse line to an irregular
boundary.
 0m, 2.3m, 5.5m, 7.9m, 8.6m, 6.9m, 7.3m, 6.2m,
3.1m and 0m
 Calculate the area between the traverse line and the
irregular boundary using the trapezoidal rule.
 Solution
 Area= 8.0 /2 [0 + 0 + 2 (2.3 + 5.5 + 7.9 + 8.6 + 6.9
+ 7.3 + 6.2 + 3.1)] = 4 X 2 (47.8)
 = 382.4 m2

 Simpson's rule
 This method assumes that instead of being
made up of a series of straight lines, the
boundary consists of a series of parabolic
arcs. A more accurate result is obtained since
a better approximation of the true shape of
the irregular boundary is achieved. Fig. 4.7
shows this applied to fig. 4.6.

 Simpson's rule considers offsets in sets of
three and it can be shown that the area
between offset 1 and 3 is given by
 A, + A2 = L/3 (O1+4O2 + O3)
 Similarly
 A3+ A4 = L/3 (O3 + 4O4 + O3)
 Hence, in general
 Total area = L/3 (01 + 0N + 4 Σ even offsets
+ 2 Σ remaining odd offsets)
 However, N must be an odd number for
Simpson's rule to apply.
 When faced with an even number of offsets,
as in Fig. 4.7, when using Simpson's rule, the
final offset must be omitted (for example,
O8), the rest of the area calculated and the
last small area calculated as a trapezium (that
is, using the trapezoidal rule).
 Question
 Using the data given in worked example 4.2,
calculate the area between the traverse line
and the irregular boundary using Simpson's
rule.
 Solution
 There are an even number of offsets, 10,
hence calculate the area between 1 and 9 by
Simpson's rule and the area between 9 and
10 by the trapezoidal rule.
 Area1_9 = 80/3 [0 + 3.1 + 4(2.3 + 7.9 + 6.9
+ 6.2) + 2(5.5 + 8.6 + 7.3)]
 8.0/3 [3.1 + 4(23.3) + 2(21.4)]
 = 8.0 x 139.1 = 370.9 m2
 3
 Area9_10 = 8/2 (3.1 + 0) = 12.4 m2
 Therefore
 Total area = Area1_9 + Area9_10 = 370.9 +
12.4 = 383.3 m2
 Note the difference between this result and
that obtained using the trapezoidal rule in
worked example 4.2. Simpson's rule will give
the more accurate result when the boundary
is genuinely irregular and the trapezoidal rule
will give the more accurate result when the
boundary is almost a series of straight lines.
In general for irregular-sided figures,
Simpson's rule should be used.
 Longitudinal Sections and Cross-Sections
 In the construction of a road, railway, large
diameter underground pipeline or similar,
having set out the proposed Centre line on
the ground, levels are taken at regular
intervals both along it and at right angles to it
to obtain the longitudinal and cross-sections.
This is shown in Fig. 3.8.
 Cross-Section layout
 When plotting the longitudinal section, the
vertical alignment is designed and the
formation levels along the centre line are
calculated. A typical longitudinal section
showing the formation level is shown in Fig.
4.9.

 Each cross-section (CS) is drawn and the
area between the existing and proposed
levels is calculated.
 Both the longitudinal section and the cross-
sections are usually drawn with their
horizontal and vertical scales at different
values, that is Scales for longitudinal section
horizontal - as road layout drawings, for
example, 1 in 500 vertical - exaggerated, for
example, 1 in 100. Scales for cross-sections
horizontal - exaggerated, for example, in 1 in
 The reason for exaggerating the vertical
scales of both sections and the horizontal
scale of the cross-sections is to give a clear
picture of the exact shape of the sections. If
the cross-sections have different horizontal
and vertical scales it is still possible to
calculate their areas either by the graphical
method or by using a planimeter as normal
and applying a conversion factor. Consider
the following worked example. 200 vertical -
exaggerated, for example, 1 in 50
 Planimeters are instruments which automatically
measure the area of any irregularsided
figure drawn on a map or a sheet of paper.

 Volumes can be determined from cross-sections


using the end areas method and the prismoidal
formula.
Volumes from spot heights and contours

 The mass haul diagram is a graph of volume


against chainage, which greatly helps in planning
earth-moving.

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