be achieved. However, methods are adopted which will give the best approximations. Give and Take Lines In this method an irregular-sided figure is divided into triangles or trapezia, the irregular boundaries being replaced by straight lines such that any small areas excluded from the survey by the lines are balanced by other small areas outside the survey but included as shown in fig. 4.3. The area is then calculated using one of the straight-sided methods. Graphical Method This method involves the use of a transparent overlay of squared paper, which is laid over the drawing or plan. The number of squares and parts of squares that are enclosed by the area is counted and, knowing the plan scale, the area represented by each square is known and hence the total area can be computed. This can be a very accurate method if a small grid is used. The following two methods make a mathematical attempt to calculate the area of an irregular-sided figure. Trapezoidal rule Fig. 4.4 shows a control network contained inside an area having irregular sides. The shaded area is that remaining to be calculated after using one of the straight-sided methods to calculate the area enclosed by the control network lines. Fig. 4.5 shows an enlargement of a section of fig. 4.4. The offsets 01, 02, 03....and so on are either measured directly in the field or scaled from a plan. The trapezoidal rule The trapezoidal rule assumes that if the interval between the offsets is small, the boundary can be approximated to a straight line between the offsets. Hence, Fig. 3.5 is assumed to be made up of a series of trapezia as shown in Fig. 3.6. Therefore, in Fig. 4.6 A1, = (01+02) L ; A2 = (02 + 03) L, etc 2 2 Hence, for N offsets, the total area (A) is given by: A = (O1 + O2) L + (O2 + O3) L + ... + (ON-1+ ON) L 2 2 2 This leads to the general trapezoidal rule shown below A= ½ L(O1+ON+2(O2+O3+O4+ ...+ ON-1)) The trapezoidal rule applies to any number of offsets. Question The following offsets, 8 m apart, were measured at right angles from a traverse line to an irregular boundary. 0m, 2.3m, 5.5m, 7.9m, 8.6m, 6.9m, 7.3m, 6.2m, 3.1m and 0m Calculate the area between the traverse line and the irregular boundary using the trapezoidal rule. Solution Area= 8.0 /2 [0 + 0 + 2 (2.3 + 5.5 + 7.9 + 8.6 + 6.9 + 7.3 + 6.2 + 3.1)] = 4 X 2 (47.8) = 382.4 m2 Simpson's rule This method assumes that instead of being made up of a series of straight lines, the boundary consists of a series of parabolic arcs. A more accurate result is obtained since a better approximation of the true shape of the irregular boundary is achieved. Fig. 4.7 shows this applied to fig. 4.6. Simpson's rule considers offsets in sets of three and it can be shown that the area between offset 1 and 3 is given by A, + A2 = L/3 (O1+4O2 + O3) Similarly A3+ A4 = L/3 (O3 + 4O4 + O3) Hence, in general Total area = L/3 (01 + 0N + 4 Σ even offsets + 2 Σ remaining odd offsets) However, N must be an odd number for Simpson's rule to apply. When faced with an even number of offsets, as in Fig. 4.7, when using Simpson's rule, the final offset must be omitted (for example, O8), the rest of the area calculated and the last small area calculated as a trapezium (that is, using the trapezoidal rule). Question Using the data given in worked example 4.2, calculate the area between the traverse line and the irregular boundary using Simpson's rule. Solution There are an even number of offsets, 10, hence calculate the area between 1 and 9 by Simpson's rule and the area between 9 and 10 by the trapezoidal rule. Area1_9 = 80/3 [0 + 3.1 + 4(2.3 + 7.9 + 6.9 + 6.2) + 2(5.5 + 8.6 + 7.3)] 8.0/3 [3.1 + 4(23.3) + 2(21.4)] = 8.0 x 139.1 = 370.9 m2 3 Area9_10 = 8/2 (3.1 + 0) = 12.4 m2 Therefore Total area = Area1_9 + Area9_10 = 370.9 + 12.4 = 383.3 m2 Note the difference between this result and that obtained using the trapezoidal rule in worked example 4.2. Simpson's rule will give the more accurate result when the boundary is genuinely irregular and the trapezoidal rule will give the more accurate result when the boundary is almost a series of straight lines. In general for irregular-sided figures, Simpson's rule should be used. Longitudinal Sections and Cross-Sections In the construction of a road, railway, large diameter underground pipeline or similar, having set out the proposed Centre line on the ground, levels are taken at regular intervals both along it and at right angles to it to obtain the longitudinal and cross-sections. This is shown in Fig. 3.8. Cross-Section layout When plotting the longitudinal section, the vertical alignment is designed and the formation levels along the centre line are calculated. A typical longitudinal section showing the formation level is shown in Fig. 4.9. Each cross-section (CS) is drawn and the area between the existing and proposed levels is calculated. Both the longitudinal section and the cross- sections are usually drawn with their horizontal and vertical scales at different values, that is Scales for longitudinal section horizontal - as road layout drawings, for example, 1 in 500 vertical - exaggerated, for example, 1 in 100. Scales for cross-sections horizontal - exaggerated, for example, in 1 in The reason for exaggerating the vertical scales of both sections and the horizontal scale of the cross-sections is to give a clear picture of the exact shape of the sections. If the cross-sections have different horizontal and vertical scales it is still possible to calculate their areas either by the graphical method or by using a planimeter as normal and applying a conversion factor. Consider the following worked example. 200 vertical - exaggerated, for example, 1 in 50 Planimeters are instruments which automatically measure the area of any irregularsided figure drawn on a map or a sheet of paper.
Volumes can be determined from cross-sections
using the end areas method and the prismoidal formula. Volumes from spot heights and contours
The mass haul diagram is a graph of volume
against chainage, which greatly helps in planning earth-moving.