ERRORS IN

OBSERVATION
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Error Defined
An error is defined as the difference between
the true value and the measured value of a
quantity. It is beyond the control of the one
performing an operation/activity.
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Mistakes Defined
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements
which occur because some aspects of the
surveying operation is performed by the
surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor
judgment, and improper execution.
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Types of Error
1. Systematic Error
This type of error is one which always have
the same sign and magnitude as long as the
field conditions remain constant and
unchanged.
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Types of Error
1. Systematic Error
It will repeat itself in other measurements ,
still maintaining the same sign, and thus will
accumulate.
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Types of Error
1. Systematic Error
In surveying, systematic errors occur due to
instrumental factors, natural causes, and human
limitations of the observer. This type of error will
continue to persist and impose regular effects in
the performance of survey operations.
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Types of Error
2. Accidental Error
This error is purely accidental in character.
The occurrence of such errors are matters of
chance as they are likely to bepositive and
negative.
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Types of Error
Systematic vs. Accidental Error
Accidental errors are usually of minor importance in
surveying operations since they are variable in sign
and are of compensating nature. Although the total
error increases as the number of measurement
increases, the total error becomes proportionally less
compared with the number of measurements, and the
accuracy becomes greater as the number of
measurements increase.
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Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Error
This error is due to the imperfections in the
instrument used, either from faults in their
construction or from proper adjustments
between the different parts before use.
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Sources of Errors
1. Examples of Instrumental Errors
• Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
• Using a rod with painted graduation not perfectly
spaced.
• Sighting on a rod which is warped.
• Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a
transit or level.
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Sources of Errors
2. Natural Error
This error is caused by variations in the
phenomena of nature such as changes in
temperature, humidity, wind, refraction and
curvature of the earth.
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Sources of Errors
2. Examples of Natural Error
• Effects of temperature variation on the length of a
steel tape.
• Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of
the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction.
• Errors in the measurement of a line with a tape
being blown sideways by a strong wind.
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Sources of Errors
3. Personal Error
This error arise principally from limitations of
the senses of sight, touch, and hearing of the
human observer which are likely to be
erroneous or inaccurate.
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Sources of Errors
3. Personal Error
•Error in the reading on a rod which is out of
plumb during sighting.
•Making an erroneous estimate of the required
pull to be applied on a steel tape during
measurement.
•Erroneous recording of observation.
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Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy
Accuracy indicates how close a given
measurement is to the absolute or true value of
the quantity measured.
The difference between the measured value of a
quantity and its actual value represents the total
error in the measurement.
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Accuracy and Precision

Precision
Precision refers to the degree of refinement
and consistency with which any physical
measurement is made. It is portrayed by the
closeness to one another of a set of repeated
measurements of a quantity.
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Accuracy and Precision

Good Precision, but Good Accuracy, but

Poor Accuracy Poor Precision
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Accuracy and Precision

Good Precision, and Poor Accuracy, and

Good Accuracy Poor Precision
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Accuracy and Precision
It is desirable for surveying measurements to be
made with high precision. Unfortunately,
however, an increase in precision usually
warrants a directly proportionate increase in the
time and effort of the surveyor. In modern time,
high precision instruments are already used
which needs proper training in order to come up
with precise readings.
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Probability
is defined as the number of times something will
probably occur over the range of possible
occurrences. Accidental errors exist in all
surveying measurements and their magnitude
and frequency are governed by the same
principles of probability. By applying these
principles, measurements containing accidental
errors could by adjusted.
ERRORS: Theory of Probability
The Theory of Probability is useful in indicating the
precision of results only in so far as they are
affected by accidental errors. It does not, however,
in any way determine the magnitude of systematic
errors which may also be present. The theory
assumes as infinite number of occurrences of all
possible events; however it may be applied with
good results to a limited but fairly large number
of observations.
ERRORS: Theory of Probability
Assumptions
1. Small errors occur more often than large ones and that
they are more probable.
2. Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less
probable; for normally distributed errors, unusually
large ones may be mistakes rather than error.
3. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen
with equal frequency; that is they are equally probable.
4. The mean of an infinite number of observations is the
most probable value.
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Most Probable Value (MPV) (Mean)
Most probable value refers to a
quantity which, based on available
data, has more chances of being
correct than any other.

From the theory of probability, it is

the arithmetic mean or average of a
group of repeated measurements
made under similar conditions.
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Most Probable Value
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Example 1 Solution:
A surveying instructor sent out six groups Given:
of students to measure a distance
x
between two points marked on the 250.25
ground. The students came up with the 250.15 1503.06
following six different values: 250.25, 249.90 𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝑥 =
6
251.04
250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 250.50 𝑴𝑷𝑽 = 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 meters
251.22 meters. Assuming these values are 251.22
equally reliable and that variations result Σ x = 1503.06
from accidental errors, determine the most 𝑛=6
probable value of the distance measured.
 Solution:
ERRORS: Given: A = 35°14’37”
Example 2 B = 96°30’09” n=3
C = 48°15’05”
The observed interior angles of a
a) Determine the correction
triangle are:
A = 35°14’37” Correct sum of interior angles of a triangle:
B = 96°30’09” 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 = 𝑛 − 2 𝑥 180° = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝟎𝟎′ 𝟎𝟎"

C = 48°15’05”. Observed Sum of interior angles:

𝑆𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝟏𝟕𝟗° 𝟓𝟗′ 𝟓𝟏"
Determine the discrepancy for the
given observation and the most
probable value for each angle.
 Solution: (Continued..)
ERRORS: Discrepancy in the sum of interior angles:
𝑆𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ± (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 −𝑆𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 )
Example 2 𝑆𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ± (180° 00′ 00 − 179° 59′ 51)
𝑺𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒚 = +𝟎𝟗"
The observed interior angles of a
triangle are: Correction to each observed interior
angles:
A = 35°14’37” 𝑆𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑛
B = 96°30’09”
+ 09"
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
C = 48°15’05”. 3
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = +𝟎𝟑"
Determine the discrepancy for the
given observation and the most
probable value for each angle.
 Solution: (Continued..)
ERRORS: b) Determine the Most Probable Value of
each angle:
Example 2 𝐴𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝐴 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐴𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 35°14’37” + 03"

The observed interior angles of a
𝑨𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝟑𝟓° 𝟏𝟒’ 𝟒𝟎"
triangle are:
𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝐵 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
A = 35°14’37”
𝐵𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 96°30’ 09” + 03"
B = 96°30’09” 𝑩𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝟗𝟔° 𝟑𝟎’ 𝟏𝟐”

C = 48°15’05”. 𝐶𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Determine the discrepancy for the 𝐶𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 48° 15’ 05” + 03"
given observation and the most 𝑪𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝟒𝟖° 𝟏𝟓’ 𝟎𝟖”
probable value for each angle.
ERRORS:
Example 3 Solution:
Measurement of three horizontal angles Given: α1 =APB=12°31’50”
α2 =BPC= 37°29’20” 𝑛=4
about a point P: APB=12°31’50”,
α3 =CPD = 47°36’30”
BPC=37°29’20”, and CPD = 47°36’30”. α4 =APD= 97°37’00”
If the measurement of the single angle
APD is 97°37’00”, determine the most 𝑎) 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
probable values of the angles. APD’ = 𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 = 97°37’40” (Expected correct sum)
APD – APD’
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
𝑛
97°37’00” –"97°37’40”"
α4 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =
α3 4
α2
α1 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = − 𝟏𝟎"
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Example 3 Solution: (Continued..)
𝑏) 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
Measurement of three horizontal angles
about a point P: APB=12°31’50”, α1 =APB=12°31’50” −10" = 12°31’40”
BPC=37°29’20”, and CPD = 47°36’30”. α2 =BPC= 37°29’20” −10" = 37°29’10”
If the measurement of the single angle
α3 =CPD = 47°36’30” −10" = 47°36’20”
APD is 97°37’00”, determine the most
probable values of the angles. α4 =APD= 97°37’00” +10" = 97°37’10”
Note 1: The correction is subtracted from each of the
three angles, 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 since their sum exceed the
single angle measured α4
α4
α3 Note 1: To the angle α4 , the correction is added
α2
α1 since its value is less than the other three angles
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Residual or Deviation
Residual (v) is defined as the difference
between any measured value of a quantity
and its most probable value (MPV).
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Probable Error
Probable error (𝑃𝐸) is a quantity which, when
added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which
there is a 50 percent chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside the
limits thus set.
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Probable Error
Probable error (𝑃𝐸𝑠) for a single
measurement can be computed using the
following formula:
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Probable Error
Probable error of the mean (𝑃𝐸m) can be
computed using the following formula:
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Relative (Error) Precision (RP)

Relative Error or Relative Precision is the ratio
of the Probable Error and the Most Probable
Value.
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Summation of Errors (𝑃𝐸𝑠um)

If several measured quantities are added, each
of which is affected by accidental errors, the
probable error of the sum is given by the squares
of the separate probable errors arising from
several sources.
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Product of Errors
For a measured quantity which is determined as
the product of two independently measured
quantities such as Q1 and Q2, the probable error
of the product is given by
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Weighted Observations
Measurements are usually done on various conditions. Such
measurements have different degrees of reliability. Thus, weight
(or reliability) are assigned to each measurement before the
most probable value is computed.

The assignment of the weight to different is usually based on (a)

the judgment of the surveyor, (b) the number of measurements
taken for a particular measurement, and (c) the assumption that
weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable
error for the said measurement.
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Weighted Observations
σ𝑤 ∙ 𝑥
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑃𝑉 =
σ𝑊
Where :
Weighted MPV = Weighted Most Probable Value
x = measured observation
w = Weight of the measured observation
ERRORS:
Example 4 Solution:
Four measurements of a Given: Measured Assigned
distance were recorded as Length Weight P = (x) x (W)
(x) (W)
284.18,284.19, 284.22, and 284.18 1 284.18
284.20 meters and given 284.19 3 852.57
weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4 284.22 2 568.44
respectively. Determine the most 284.2 4 1136.8
probable value of the distance. Sums Σ W = 10 Σ P = 2841.99

σ𝑊 ∙ 𝑥
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑃𝑉 =
σ𝑊
2841.99
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑃𝑉 = = 284.20 m
10
ERRORS:
Example 5 Solution:
Lines of levels to establish the Given:
elevation of a point are run
over four different routes. The Line
Observed Probable
E2 w = 1/ E2
Relative Weight
( x ) x (rw)
observed elevations of the Elevations (x) Error ( E ) (RW) = wx / wLx
point with probable values 1 219.832 ±0.006 m 0.000036 27777.778 16.000 3517.312
are given below. Determine 2 219.93 ±0.012 m 0.000144 6944.444 4.000 879.720
the most probable value of
3 219.701 ±0.018 m 0.000324 3086.420 1.778 390.580
the elevation of the point.
4 220.021 ±0.024 m 0.000576 1736.111 1.000 220.021
219.832±0.006 m Sums 22.778 5007.633
219.930±0.012 m σ𝑊 ∙ 𝑥
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑃𝑉 =
219.701±0.018 m σ𝑊
220.021±0.024 m 5007.633
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑃𝑉 = = 219.847 m
22.78