Sign

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Erro t Figun
PHY r An r es
110/
210/ alys &
1
50/3 is
60/2
5 0
 Significant Figures
Rules for Counting Significant Figures

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 123.7 has 4 significant figures

2. All zeros between non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 1207 has 4 sig. figs., 120.007 has 6 sig. figs.

3. All zeros at the left of the number are NOT significant.

Example: 0.00032 has 2 sig. figs, 0.03 has 1 sig. fig.

4. Zeroes to the right of a decimal point in a number are significant.

Example: 0.023 mL has 2 significant figures, 0.200 g has 3 significant figures.

5. When a number ends in zeroes that are not to the right of a decimal point, the zeroes are not
necessarily significant.
Example: 190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures, 50,600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5 significant
figures.
5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant figures),
5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant figures),
or 5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant figures).
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

multiply/divide 6.2 = 1.1376146…

5.45
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

multiply/divide 6.2 = 1.1376146…

5.45
1.Count the number of sig. figs. in each
measurement
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

multiply/divide 6.2 = 1.1376146…

5.45
1.Count the number of sig. figs. in each
measurement
2.The answer has as many as the least
precise measurement (fewest)
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

multiply/divide 6.2 = 1.1376146…

5.45
1.Count the number of sig. figs. in each
measurement
2.The answer has as many as the least
precise measurement (fewest)
3.Use the last digit dropped to round
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

multiply/divide 6.2 = 1.1

5.45
1.Count the number of sig. figs. in each
measurement
2.The answer has as many as the least
precise measurement (fewest)
3.Use the last digit dropped to round
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

add/subtract 14.3
+ 220.75
235.05
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

add/subtract 14.3
+ 220.75
235.05
1.Keep everything to the left of the
decimal
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

add/subtract 14.3
+ 220.75
235.05
1.Keep everything to the left of the
decimal
2.Keep only the places in common to the
right of the decimal
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

add/subtract 14.3
+ 220.75
235.05
1.Keep everything to the left of the
decimal
2.Keep only the places in common to the
right of the decimal
3.Use the last digit dropped to round
Rules for calculating with sig. figs.

add/subtract 14.3
+ 220.75
235.05 = 235.1
1.Keep everything to the left of the
decimal
2.Keep only the places in common to the
right of the decimal
3.Use the last digit dropped to round
UNCERTAINTY AND ERROR IN
MEASUREMENT
 An error is the difference between the measured
value and the expected value of something
(unavoidable).
 An uncertainty is a way of expressing or
summarizing the error (unavoidable).
 A mistake is simply not doing something correctly
through carelessness (avoidable).
 Thus, an error is not the same as an uncertainty,
though both are unavoidable
 PRECISION AND ACCURACY

 Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a

measured value and a true or accepted value
(measurement error reveals
 Precision is a measure of the degree of consistency
and agreement among independent measurements of
the same quantity the amount of inaccuracy).
Type of Error
RANDOM ERRORS refer to random fluctuations
in the measured data due to:
 The readability of the instrument
 The effects of something changing in the
surroundings between measurements
 The observer being less than perfect

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS refer to reproducible fluctuations

consistently in the same direction due to:
 An instrument being wrongly calibrated
 An instrument with zero error (it does not read zero when it
should – to correct for this, the value should be subtracted
from every reading)
 The observer being less than perfect in the same way during
each measurement.
ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
Measurement = measured value ± uncertainty
(unit of measurement)

How?
 ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
1. The min value of the smallest scale of the instrument
(scale measurement Error)
Example 1:

The smallest scale is 0.1 cm

Therefore, Δ L = 0.1/2 = 0.05cm

The value of line is , L Δ L = 8.60 ±0.05 cm

 ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
Example 2:

The smallest scale is 1 s

Therefore, Δ t = 1/2 = 0.5 s
The measurement 4.5 ± 0.5s
ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
2. If the experimental has different value for repeating
measurement, the uncertainty is associated with the average
of deviation
Example:
a (mm) 1.55 1.52 1.54 1.53

<a> = (1.55 +1.52+1.54+1.53)/4=1.535

Deviation d1 = |1.55-1.535|=0.015
d2 = |1.52-1.535|=0.015
d3 = |1.54-1.535|=0.005
d4 = |1.53-1.535|=0.005
Average, <d> = (0.015+0.015+0.005+0.005)/4=0.01
The measurement, a = (1.535±0.010) mm
ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
3. If we know the standard value. The uncertainties
normally we calculate the percentage relative error:
Example: g measure = 10.0 m/s2
g standard = 9.81 m/s2
% error =x100% = 1.936%
 ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
4. For the graphical analysis of data, we use the maximum and
minimum best-fit lines to determine the final uncertainty.
Example:

Gradient of best fit, m = 9.78 m/s 2

Max gradient, mmax = 9.88 m/s2
Min gradient, mmin = 9.72 m/s2
Δ m = ½ (mmax - mmin )
Therefore, gradient m = (9.78± 0.08 )
m/s2

Same method for calculating the intercept

ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
5. Sometimes, the final result involving
mathematical equations, so we need to be concerned
with how we treat uncertainties in calculated values
using experimental data

I. If data are to be added or subtracted, add the

absolute uncertainty:
A = p ± q , ΔA = Δp + Δ q

Example: Mass of empty beaker is (50 ± 1 ) g

Mass of beaker and water is (100 ± 1 ) g
Mass of water = 100-50 = 50 g
Error of m = 1+1 =2 g
Therefore, mass of water = 50 ± 2 g
ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
II. If data are to be multiplied or divided, add
the percentage uncertainty:
A=pxq , =
A = p / q, =

Example: the mass of water is mass of water = 50 ±

2 g. The volume of 2.1 ±0.1 m3. Density=?
Error of density is = =
ABSOLUTE AND PERCENTAGE
UNCERTAINTIES
III. If data are raised to a power, multiply the
percentage uncertainty by that power:
A = pn , =n

Example: A cylinder has a radius of 1.60 ± 0.01 cm and a

height of 11.5 ± 0.1 cm. Find the volume.
V = π r2 h = π (1.60)2 x 11.5 = 92.488 cm3 = 92 cm3
=2 = 2 cm3
V is (92 ± 2 ) cm3
Exercises
Exercises
Exercises
In experiment simple resistor, the following data
obtain.
Voltage (V) Current (A)
1 0.88
2 3
3 3.7
4 3.6
5 6.5
6 9
7 10.6
8 12.3
10 15

Find the resistance and its uncertainty.

Examples of Measuring Instruments
-Vernier Calliper
 A vernier caliper is used to measure an object with
dimensions up to 12 cm with an accuracy of 0.01 cm.
 Comprises of a main scale and a vernier scale.

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 The reading on the main scale is determined with
reference to the `0' mark on the vernier scale.
 The reading to be taken on the vernier scale is
indicated by the mark on the vernier scale which is
exactly in line or coincides with any main scale
division line.

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 Example in Figure below:

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PHY110
Examples of Measuring Instruments
-Micrometer Screw Gauge
  This instrument can be used to measure
diameters of wires and thicknesses of steel plates
to an accuracy of 0.01 mm.
 

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PHY110
 The micrometer scale comprises a main scale marked on
the sleeve and a scale marked on the thimble called the
thimble scale.
 One division on the thimble scale is 0.01 mm

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PHY110
Example:

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PHY110
Conclusion:
!!!!!! Measurement = measured value ±
uncertainty (unit of measurement)
Or

% Relative error =x100% !!!!!!