Introduction: Experiments, Measurements and Errors

The foundation of physics is a set of experiments that reveal the fundamental behavior of
nature. It was by the observation and measurement of this behavior that the principles of
physics and our understanding of natural laws were established. In these laboratories we
will reproduce some of the classic experiments that led to these principles.

Since ours is an experimental approach, it is appropriate to begin with a few words about
experimental methods and the analysis of experimental data. Here we have compiled for
your reference some rules and formulas in data analysis that you will use in all of these
experiments:

 Significant figures
 Percent error & percent difference
 Rounding

Also, the use of two precision measuring instruments is illustrated:

 Vernier caliper
 Micrometer

First however, we take an overview of the types of errors encountered in experimental

work. Understanding how to avoid errors, or to deal with them, is fundamental to good
results.

Experimental Errors

In an ideal experiment, we want to observe a single phenomenon in its “pure” state –

unaffected by extraneous influences. For instance, to measure the speed of a ball falling
to Earth under the influence of gravity, we would like to

(1) drop the ball from precisely the same height each time we take a
measurement;
(2) have the use of a perfectly regular stopwatch;
(3) remove the air from the Earth, so that the issue is not confused by air
resistance;
(4) have the use of a perfectly straight and precisely calibrated meter stick; and
(5) be ourselves perfectly competent experimenters.

Obviously, none of this is possible. Instead, we have to sift through those extraneous
influences to study the underlying behavior in which we are interested, and we have to
evaluate the effects that imperfect conditions and imperfect measurements have on our
observations. Otherwise, any conclusions we might make could be misleading or wrong.

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Experience has shown that experiments are subject to two major types of error: random
error and systematic error.

 Random error is the result of unpredictable effects from the surroundings or

uncontrollable variations in the experimental apparatus or set-up. For instance,
being unable to achieve (1) and (2) above would result in finding a different speed
for the ball each time we measure it. We might ask, “What is the true speed of
the ball when dropped?”

Random errors are inevitable in any real experiment, but their effect can be
minimized by taking many measurements and averaging the results. If the errors
are truly random, measurements that are too high will occur about as often as
measurements that are too low and the errors will cancel out in the average.

It is for this reason that we take repeated measurements in any experiment. The
average or mean value of a set of measurements should be a good approximation
to the true value, and the approximation improves as the number of measurements
increases.

 Systematic error, on the other hand, results from defective instruments, mistaken
procedures or false assumptions. In this case, all measurements are equally
skewed and averaging does not improve the results. The only cures for systematic
errors are to anticipate them and to avoid them.

For instance, the inability to achieve situations (3) would result in systematic error
if we did not take the effects of air resistance into account. This would not be a
random outside influence, because it is predictable. It is the job of the
experimenter to anticipate such effects.

Many systematic errors are controllable. For instance, if instead of (4) above, the
meter stick were warped, then all measurements would be too long. The average
of the results would also be too long.

Related to this is the importance of correctly setting or calibrating our measuring

instruments. For instance, in using a micrometer (see below), it is essential to
check whether the instrument reads zero when its jaws are closed. If it does not,
we should subtract its zero reading from all measurements to avoid skewing our
results.

Another common systematic error is known as parallax error. This results when
we take readings at an oblique line-of-sight, so that what appears to line up (the
tick marks on a meter stick, for example) in fact do not. Always take your
readings dead-on.

Ultimately, systematic error can be traced to the impossibility of situation (5). But, with
a little effort and attention, we can go a long way without being perfect.

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Significant Figures and Rounding

No measurement is exact. When performing calculations on measured quantities,

arithmetic results should be rounded to reflect the precision (the sensitivity) of the
measuring instruments. Three guidelines to follow are:

Significant Figures All digits in a measurement Examples:

The number of significant
figures in a number tells us
how certain the result is, and
where rounding has occurred.
Addition & Subtraction
Rule
are significant except zeros
that are used as place- 101 meters has 3
holders. significant figures.
Not all digits in a calculated 10100 centimeters also
result are significant. See the has 3 significant figures.
rules below.
Example:
When adding or subtracting,
the result should have no 1.763 cm
more decimal places than the 22.5 cm
term with the least number of 0.0068 cm
decimal places. --------
24.3 cm
In the example, the three
length measurements sum to (not 24. 2698 cm)
24.3 cm, accurate to the
nearest 1/10 cm.

Multiplication & Division
Rule
(Use also for square roots,
trig functions & etc.)
When multiplying, dividing,
taking roots or using
trigonometric functions, the
result should have no more
significant figures than the
factor with the least number
of significant figures.
Example:
1.763 cm x 22.5 cm x .
0068 cm = .27 cm3
(not .269739 cm3)
Examples:

Sin(33) = .54

Sin(33.0)=.545

(not .544639 as given by

a calculator)

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Percent Error, Percent Difference, Percent Deviation

A basic part of any experiment is to determine the significance of our measured results.
We want to know if the results are reasonable or nonsense, or if they compare well to
results found by others. We do this by taking the ratio of two quantities to be compared,
and expressing the result as a percent.

Percent error Use when comparing an % Error =

experimental result to a
known or accepted value Result – Accepted
-------------------- x 100
Accepted

Percent Use when comparing two % Difference =

difference equally weighted values.
Value 1 – Value 2
--------------------- x 100
Average

(take the absolute value)

Percent Use when comparing one % Deviation =

deviation value in a set of
measurements to the average Value – Average
of the set. -------------------- x 100
Average

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Vernier Caliper

The Vernier Caliper is calibrated to take length measurements to a precision of 1/10

millimeter or greater. The key to its operation is a sliding Vernier scale that is compared
to a fixed centimeter scale to determine the last decimal place in the measurement. Refer
to Diagram 1.

1. Place the object to be measured in the jaws of the caliper and close the jaws
snugly. Do not force the instrument.
2. Look for the fixed centimeter scale along the length of the instrument. Many
calipers also have an inch scale but we won’t use this. The centimeter scale is
tick-marked in millimeters like any centimeter ruler.
3. The Vernier scale is marked on the sliding jaw of the caliper.
4. Look for where the zero (leftmost) mark on the Vernier scale lines up on the fixed
scale. This gives you the first two digits of the reading. In the diagram, the first
Vernier mark is slightly beyond 1.2 cm on the fixed scale. Thus the object is at
least 1.2 cm long.
5. Now look on the Vernier scale and find the mark that best lines up with any mark
on the fixed scale. In the diagram, the 3-mark lines up best with the fixed scale;
all other marks are slightly ahead or behind their corresponding fixed-scale marks.
This means the object is 3/10 mm beyond 1.2 cm.
6. Add the two readings: 1.2 cm + .03 cm = 1.23 cm.

Note: Some Vernier calipers are calibrated in 1/20 mm. In this case, each mark on the Vernier scale
signifies a multiple of .05 mm, or .005 cm.

Micrometer

The micrometer is calibrated to take length measurements to the nearest 1/100 of a

millimeter. By estimating between tick-marks, we can take measurements to the nearest
1/1000 of a millimeter, or 10-6 meters – one micron. Refer to Diagram 2.

1. Place the object to be measured in the jaws of the micrometer and turn the thimble
until the jaws close lightly on the object. Do not force the mechanism.
2. At the end of the micrometer is a ratchet knob. Turn this until it clicks or is snug.
Do not force.
3. Look at the barrel, where there are two rows of tick marks separated by a center
line. The top row represents the number of millimeters in the measurement. The
ticks in the bottom row are half-millimeter marks.
4. The edge of the thimble shows the number of millimeters and half-millimeters in
the reading. In the diagram, the thimble edge is just beyond the 7.5 mm mark.
5. Now look on the thimble itself. Each tick mark on the thimble shows the number
of hundredths (.01) of a millimeter beyond the first measurement. In the diagram,
the center line on the barrel lines up between the 26 and 27 marks on the thimble.
We can estimate this as 26.4 hundredths of a millimeter, so the reading is
26.4/100 millimeter, or .264 millimeters.
6. Add the two readings: 7.5 mm + .264 mm = 7.764 mm.

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[Diagram 1]

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[Diagram 2]

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