Measurement Techniques

2.0 Measurement Techniques

Errors

A reading is a single determination of the value of an unknown quantity.

A measurement is the final result of the analysis of a series of readings.
 Any measurement of a quantity has an amount of uncertainty or error in
the value obtained.
 The uncertainty of a measurement is the total range of values within which
it is likely to lie.
 This degree of accuracy of a measurement depends on the instrument used
and physical constraints of the observer.
 A value can be quoted as 3.62 ± 0.01 mm to denote the error.
 The value 0.01 mm is the absolute error.
0.01
 Error can also be quoted as a fractional error e.g. or 2.76 × 10-3
3.62
0.01
 The percentage error is × 100% = 0.276 %.
3.62
Systematic errors
These are uncertainties in the measurement of physical quantities due to
instruments, faults in surrounding environment or mistakes by the
observer.
 These are characterised by a roughly constant size of error.
 Measurement will either be greater or less than actual value not both.
 Sources include:
 Zero error:- the initial reading on an instrument is non-zero even
when it is not being used.
 Personal error of the observer:- physical constraints or limitations of
the observer.
 Faulty instruments:- other than zero error, e.g. a fast moving
stopwatch.
 Errors due to wrong assumptions:- e.g. value of g varies with
distance from equator can be 9.81 ms-2 or 9.78 ms-2
 Systematic errors can only be reduced by carefully taking measurements,
using different instruments and using different methods.
Random errors
These are uncertainties in a measurement made by an observer or person
taking the measurement.
 The magnitude of random errors is not constant; reading may be smaller
and greater than the actual value.
 These can be reduced by taking a large number of readings and averaging
them.
Precision and accuracy
Measurement Techniques

The precision of a measurement system refers to how close the agreement

is between repeated measurements (which are repeated under the same
conditions)
 Using different instruments affects the precision of measurement.
 Eg when measuring a length degrees of precision increases from
metre rule to vernier calliper and finally micrometre screw gauge
Measuring instrument Reading
Ruler 1.2 ± 0.1 cm
Vernier Calliper 1.20 ± 0.01cm
Micrometer Screw gauge 1.200 ± 0.001cm

 Number of significant figures in a measurement gives an indication of the

precision of the measurement.

The accuracy is how close a measurement is to the correct or true value for
that measurement.

Treatment of errors

1. Addition or Subtraction
Suppose a physical quantity U is related to two other physical quantities x and y:
U=x+y
If δx and δy are the errors in measurement of x and y resp. then error in U, δU is
given by: δU = ±(δx + δy)
If V = x – y then δV = ±(δx + δy)

2. Product and Quotient

Measurement Techniques

𝑥𝑦
Suppose 𝑈 = , then fractional error in U is given by
𝑧
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= ±( + + )
𝑈 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

3. Indices

Suppose U = axbyc where a, b and c are constants.

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Then = ±(𝑏 + 𝑐 )
𝑈 𝑥 𝑦

Significant figures

 The significant figures of a number are those digits which have meaningful
contribution to the precision of the number.
 In an experimental measurement, significant figures indicate the extent to
which the readings are reliable.
Example
To compute the value of π from the measured area of a circle 154 cm2 of radius
7:00 cm;
The value of π is given by
154
π = 7.00×7.00 = 3.14
 The value of π can only have 3 significant figures.

Rules for determining the number of significant figures

1) Significant figures are quoted only for a measurement and not for a pure
number.
2) All non-zero digits are significant.
3) All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant.
4) The initial zeros after the decimal point are not significant if there is no
non-zero digit before the decimal point.
5) In 0.0012, the significant digits are 1,2. Hence, 0.0012 has two significant
figures.
6) Zeros at the beginning and end of a number are not significant. i.e.,
005264202300 has eight significant figures.
7) All zeros and non-zero digit to the right of decimal point are significant if
there is a non-zero digit to the left of the decimal. For example, 5.0008 has
five significant figures. 40.00 has four significant figures.
8) The powers of 10 are not counted while counting the number of
significant figures. 1:050 x 1025 has four significant figures.

Rules of compounding the measurement to know the number of significant figures

1. In addition and subtraction, the number of decimal places in the result
should be equal to the smallest number of decimal places in the sum or
difference.
2. So, 2.032 +1.02 = 3.05 and not 3.052
3. 32.324 - 21.12 = 11.20 and not 11.204
Measurement Techniques

4. In multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the

result should be equal to the number of significant figures of the least
precise term.
5. 31.2 × 2.51 = 78.3 and not 78.312
27.340
6. 3.51 = 7.79 and not 7.7891738