Principles of Surveying
6.3.4 PRINCIPLE OF LEAST SQUARE
According to the principle of least square, the most probable
value of the quantity observed from a given set of observa-
tions is that for which the sum of error squares is a minimum.
6.4 ERRORS
6.4.1 SOURCES OF ERRORS
Survey errors can occur from three main sources:
6.4.1.1 Instrumental Errors
Survey errors may be caused by imperfection or incorrect
adjustment of the measuring instrument. An angle measuring
instrument, for example, may be out of control or a tape may
be too long. Such mistakes are called instrumental errors.
6.4.1.2 Personal Errors
Error can also occur because of a lack of perfection of human
sight in observation and of touch in instruments manipulation.
For example, there may be an error in reading a level or read-
ing an angle in a theodolite’s circle. Such errors are referred
to as personal errors.
6.4.1.3 Natural Errors
Surveying errors can also happen due to differences in phe-
nomena such as temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, refrac-
tion, and magnetic decay. If they are not properly monitored
during measurement, the ndings seem to be incorrect. A tape
can be 20 m at 20°C, for example, but its length will alter if
the eld temperature is drastically different.
6.4.2 TYPES OF SURVEYING ERRORS
Ordinary survey errors in all the survey work classes can be
categorized as follows:
6.4.2.1 Mistakes
These happen only during manual recording. Errors result
from inexperience, inattention, carelessness, poor judgment,
or confusion in the observer’s mind. They do not follow any
math (probability law) rules and can be small or large, posi-
tive or negative. They cannot be quanti ed. Examples of mis-
takes are as follows:
1. False recording, e.g., Write 69 instead of 96
2. Counting eight for three
6.4.2.2 Accidental Errors
Errors in the survey may occur due to unavoidable circum-
stances such as possible variations in atmospheric conditions
that are completely beyond the control of the observer. Errors
in surveys due to imperfection in instruments of measurement
and even imperfection of eyesight fall into this class. They can
be positive and signs can change. They are not accountable.
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6.4.2.3 Systematic or Cumulative Errors
A cumulative or systematic error is an error that always has
the same size and signs under the same conditions. A system-
atic error often obeys a certain mathematical or physical law
and it can be corrected and applied. These mistakes are of a
constant nature and are regarded positive or negative, because
the result is large or small. Their effect is therefore cumula-
tive. These are the examples:
• Faulty line alignment
• An instrument is not properly leveled
• An instrument is not correctly adjusted
6.4.2.4 Compensating Errors
• Error in compensation typically occurs in either
direction, i.e., sometimes the error tends to be posi-
tive and sometimes negative and thus offset each
other. They tend sometimes in one direction and
sometimes in the other, i.e., the obvious result is sta-
tistically likely to be large or small. They should be
managed in accordance with mathematical laws of
probability because they obey the laws of chance.
Some instances are as follows:
• Inaccurate centering
• Inaccurate object bisection
6.4.3 MOST PROBABLE ERROR
The most probable error is de ned as that quantity which
when added to and subtracted from, the most probable value
xes the limits within which it is an even chance the true
value of the measured quantity must lie.
The probable error of a single observation is calculated
using the equation,
∑ v2
Es = ±0.6745 (6.1)
n −1
The probable error of the mean of a number of observations of
the same quantity is calculated from the equation:
∑ 2 E
Es = 0.6745 = m (6.2)
n n −1 n
where Es is the probable error of single observation, ν is the
difference between the mean of the series and the single
observation, Em is the probable error of the mean, and n is the
number of observations in the series.
6.5 VERTICAL CONTROL
Vertical control networks are a number of points on which
precise heights or elevations have been determined. Vertical
checkpoints are usually called bench marks.
96
6.6 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE
6.6.1 METHODS OF LINEAR SURVEYING
Linear survey methods can be subdivided into three heads
as direct measurement, optical measurement, and electronic
measurement.
6.6.1.1 Direct Measurement
In this method of surveying, distances on the surface of the
earth are actually measured using chains, tapes, etc.
The following methods are generally employed for linear
measurements:
• Pacing: The distance can be determined by pacing if
approximate results are required. It consists of walk-
ing upon a line and counting the number of paces
(800 mm) the needed distance can be obtained by
multiplying the number of paces by the average pace
length. The pace length varies with the following:
• individual, age, physical condition, height
• land nature (uphill and downhill)
• the country’s slope, and
• the pacing speed
• Passometer: It is a pocket tool used to record the
number of paces automatically. It should be car-
ried vertically or hung from a button in a waistcoat
pocket. The mechanism is operated by the body’s
movement and strain.
• Pedometer: It is like a passometer. The key differ-
ence is that it records the distance traveled by those
who carry it. The distance is measured by an indica-
tor. It is equipped with a knob or stud, which can be
carried in the same way as the passometer when the
release indicator is pressed to zero.
• Odometer: It calculates the approximate distances
and can be connected to any vehicle’s wheel. It
records the number of wheel revolutions. When the
wheel circumference is known, the distance tra-
versed can be achieved by multiplying the number of
revolutions by the wheel circumference.
• Speed meter: The locomotive speed meter is used
for approximate distance measurement. It results
better than pacing, provided the route is smooth.
• Perambulator: It is used for rapid distance measure-
ment. It is made up of a single wheel with a fork and
a handle. It is wheeled along the line that is desirable
in length.
• Time measurement: The distance is determined
approximately by the travel time. If you know the
average time per km for a walker or a horse or a light
ray as in modern instruments, you can easily calcu-
late the distance traversed.
• Chaining: A more accurate method called chaining
is used to calculate the distance using a chain, rope,
or a tape. A chain is used for ordinary precision work.
Where high precision is needed, a steel tape is used.
Practical Civil Engineering
6.6.1.2 Measurement by Optical Means
In this technique, observations are made via a telescope and
distances are ascertained by analysis such as in tacheometer
or triangulation.
6.6.1.3 Electronic Method
Distances are measured using instruments that rely on the
propagation, re ection, and subsequent reception of radio or
light waves in these linear surveying methods. The various
tools used with electronic methods are as follows:
• Geodimeter
• Tellurometer
• Decca navigator
• Lambda position xing system
The distance calculated in the case of the geodimeter is based
on the light wave propagation. The other three instruments
use radio waves to measure distance.
6.7 CONTOURING
A contour is an invisible line of nearly constant elevation on the
surface of the ground. This can be regarded as the intersection
line between the level surface and the soil surface. The intersec-
tion line of the water surface of a lake or lake with the encircling
ground, for example, represents a contour line.
6.7.1 TERMS RELATED TO CONTOURING
• Contour line: A line with equal elevation points is
termed a contour line. It enables depiction of terrain
relief in a two-dimensional plan or map.
• Contour gradient: An imaginary line on the surface
of the earth with a constant horizontal inclination
(slope) is termed the contour gradient. The incli-
nation of a contour gradient is usually given as an
upward gradient or a downward gradient. It is found
as the relation between the vertical height and the
horizontal distance speci ed.
• Contour interval: The lateral distance between
two successive contours is an interval of contours.
For  instance, if the different consecutive contours
are 100, 98, 96 m, etc. Contour intervals for at
country are usually tiny, e.g., 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 m, and so
on. There is a greater steep slope in the hilly region,
e.g., 5, 10, 15 m, etc.
6.7.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
The main features of the contour lines that assist to draw or
read a contour map are as follows:
• The uctuation of the vertical distance between each
of the two contour lines is presumed to be uniform.
• The horizontal distance between each of the two
contour lines implies the slope amount and differs
Principles of Surveying 97

FIGURE 6.2 Contours of terrain having different types of slope.

FIGURE 6.3 Contours of terrain having different types of slope.

inversely with the slope amount. Therefore, the with higher values shows a hill, while the lower value
contours are equally spaced for uniform slopes shows a depression (without an outlet).
as in Figure 6.2, for steep slope contours as in • Contours de ect uphill on lines of the valley and
Figure 6.3. downhill on lines of ridge. U-shaped contour lines
• At any point in the contour, the steepest slope of the
terrain is depicted along the normal contour at that
point as in Figure 6.4. They are perpendicular to the
mountain ridges and valley lines traversing these lines.
• Contours do not actually pass through buildings like
permanent structures as in Figure 6.5.
• Contours of various elevations cannot be crossed
(exceptions are caves and overhanging cliffs).
• Contours of various heights cannot mobilize to form
a single contour (an exception is the vertical cliff).
• Contour lines cannot start or end on the plan.
• A contour line should be completely closed but not
inherently within the map limits.
• A map’s closed contour line symbolizes depressions
or hills as in Figure 6.6. A full set of ring contours FIGURE 6.4 Steepest slope of a terrain indicated at contour lines.
98 Practical Civil Engineering

FIGURE 6.5 Contours across permanent structure.

FIGURE 6.7 Valley and ridge lines.

FIGURE 6.8 Closed traverse.

anywhere else, it is said to be an open crossing. A completely

FIGURE 6.6 Hill and its contour.
cross a ridge and cross a valley at the right angles in
V-shaped form. The concavity in the contour lines is
in the case of a ridge toward the higher ground and
in the case of a valley toward the lower ground as in
Figure 6.7.
• Contours have no sharp turns.
closed crossing is appropriate for the location of lakes, forests,
etc., and for huge areas. Figure  6.8 shows a closed traverse.
The open crossing is appropriate for the survey of a long nar-
row strip of land for a road, canal, or coastline. Figure 6.9
shows an open traverse.
6.8.1 PROCEDURE FOR TRAVERSE CALCULATIONS
6.8.1.1 Balancing Angles of Closed Traverses

6.8 TRAVERSE SURVEYING

Traversing is the type of survey in which the framework for
∑ interior angles = n − 2 × 180 (6.3)

a number of connected survey lines and the directions and

lengths of the survey lines are calculated by using an angle where n is the number of interior angles. If a is the tiny
calculating instrument and a tape. Whenever the lines form division visible on the instrument,
a circuit that nishes at the base point, that they really are
simply regarded to as a closed crossing. If the circuit nishes Maximum error = n × a (6.4)
Principles of Surveying
FIGURE 6.9 Open traverse.
6.8.1.2 Closure of Latitudes and Departures
• The mathematical total sum of all latitudes must
be nil or latitude distinction between the initial and
nal points of control.
• The algebraic sum of all departures shall be equal to
zero percent or the departure distinction between the
initial and nal control points.
6.9 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
Hydrographic survey is the survey branch that deals speci -
cally with the quanti cation of water bodies. It is the art of
describing the underwater levels, contours, and characteris-
tics of seas, gulfs, rivers, and lakes.
In one or more of the following conditions, hydrographic
surveys are actually carried out.
1. Measurement of sea coast tides
2. Setting the depth of the bed by sounding
3. Finding of current direction
6.9.1 HORIZONTAL CONTROLS
The primary horizontal control is mainly developed in an
extensive survey by running theodolite and tape traverses
in front of the triangulation station. The traverse lines run
approximately to the shore lines.
6.9.2 VERTICAL CONTROLS
Vertical controls depends on a series of bench marks devel-
oped by spirit leveling near the shoreline, which are used to
set and check tide gages, etc.
6.9.3 SOUNDING AND THE METHODS
EMPLOYED IN SOUNDING
The depth measurement below the water surface is known as
sounding. The datum or the horizontal line is the surface of
water, the level of which continuously goes on changing with
time. The aim of producing soundings is thus to identify the
structure of the subaqueous source. Soundings are required
for the following purposes:
99
i. Making nautical charts for navigation;
ii. Calculation of silting or scouring areas and determi-
nation of volume of dredged material;
iii. Conducting subaqueous inquiries to gather data nec-
essary to build, develop, and improve port facilities.
6.9.3.1 Sounding Boat
A row-boat for sounding should be stable and suf ciently
roomy. For quiet water, a at bottom boat is more suitable, but
for rough water, round-bottomed boat is more suitable.
6.9.3.2 Fathometer
An instrument regarded as a fathometer is used for sounding
the ocean. It is an electronic device used to quantify the time
expected to travel to the bottom end of the water and back
by the sound (impulses). The time of travel is transformed to
depth in either digital or graphical fathometer. It is termed
echo sounder too.
6.10 CURVES
Curves are typically used on highways and railways when the
direction of motion needs to be changed. A curve can be cir-
cular, parabolic, or spiral and always be tangential in both
directions. Furthermore, circular curves are subdivided into
three classes: (1) simple, (2) compound, and (3) reverse.
6.10.1 SIMPLE CURVE
A simple curve is that consisting of a single circle arc. Both
straight lines are tangential. A compound curve comprises
two or more simple arcs which turn in the same direction
and at common points of tangent. A reverse curve is the one
consisting of two circular arches in the same or distinct radii
with their centers on the various sides of the fairly common
tangent. Both arches therefore bend in various directions with
a normal tangent at junction end. Figure 6.10 shows the fairly
typical layout of the single curve.
6.10.1.1 Elements of a Simple Curve
• Point of intersection (PI): The intersection point
indicates the intersection of the back and forward
tangents. The surveyor shows that it is one of the
preliminary crossing stations.
• Intersecting angle (I): The intersection angle at
the intersection point is the de ection angle. The
surveyor calculates its real value from the prelimi-
nary angles of the crossing station or determines it
on the eld.
• Radius (R): It is the circle radius of which the curve
is an arc.
• Point of curvature (PC): Curvature point is the
point at which the circular curve begins. At this
point, the back tangent is tangent to the curve.