TYPES OF ERRORS IN MEASURING DISTANCES

A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured values of the
same quantity. However, measurements are never exact and there will always be a degree of
variance regardless of the survey instrument or method used. These variances are known as
errors and will need to be reduced or eliminated to maintain specific survey standards.

BLUNDERS
A blunder (or gross error) is a significant, unpredictable mistake caused by human error
that often leads to large discrepancies. Blunders are typically the result of carelessness,
miscommunication, fatigue, or poor judgment. Examples of common blunders are:
- Improperly leveling the surveying instrument.
- Setting up the instrument or target over the wrong control point.
- Incorrectly entering a control point number in the data collector.
- Transposing numbers or misplacing the decimal point.

All blunders must be found and eliminated prior to submitting a survey for inclusion in the
project mapping. The surveyor must remain alert and constantly examine measurements to
eliminate these mistakes. Blunders can be detected and eliminated by reacting to
“out-oftolerance” messages by the data collector when they occur. They can also be detected by
carefully examining a plot of the collected survey points while in the office.

TYPES OF ERRORS
There are two types of errors, systematic and random. It is important for the surveyor to
understand the difference between the two errors in order to minimize them.

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
● are caused by the surveying equipment, observation methods, and certain
environmental factors.
● Under the same measurement conditions, these errors will have the same
magnitude and direction (positive or negative).
● Because systematic errors are repetitive and tend to accumulate in a series of
measurements, they are also referred to as cumulative errors.
● Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor must
recognize the conditions that cause such errors. The following list includes
several examples of systematic errors:
- Using incorrect temperature and/or pressure observations.
- Not applying curvature and refraction constants.
- Using incorrect instrument heights and/or target heights.
- Using an incorrect prism offset.
- Using an imperfectly adjusted instrument.
 The effect of these errors can be minimized by:
- Properly leveling the survey instrument and targets.
- Balancing foresight and backsight observations.
- Entering the appropriate environmental correction factors in the data
collector.
- Entering the correct instrument heights, targets heights, and prism offset
in the data collector.
- Periodically calibrating the surveying equipment.

RANDOM ERRORS
● (or accidental errors) are not directly related to the conditions or circumstances of
the observation.
● For a single measurement or a series of measurements, it is the error remaining
after all possible systematic errors and blunders have been eliminated.
● As the name implies, random errors are unpredictable and are often caused by
factors beyond the control of the surveyor. Their occurrence, magnitude, and
direction (positive or negative) cannot be predicted.
● Errors of this type are compensating and tend to at least partially cancel
themselves mathematically. Because the magnitude is also a matter of chance
they will remain, to some degree, in every measurement.
● Random errors account for the misclosure when systematic errors have been
corrected and blunders have been removed. Misclosures are computed when
adjusting level loops, traverses, and GPS networks.
● Random errors conform to the laws of probability and are therefore equally
distributed throughout the survey.
● Because of their random nature, correction factors cannot be computed and
applied as they are with some systematic errors.
● However, they can be estimated using a procedure based on the laws of
probability known as the least-squares method of adjustment. This method
computes the most probable adjusted values and the precision of the survey. The
least-squares method may also reveal the presence of large blunders.

ERROR SOURCES
There are a variety of factors that can lead to measurement errors. Errors typically arise
from three sources; natural errors, instrument errors, and human errors.

NATURAL ERRORS
● are caused by environmental conditions or significant changes in environmental
conditions.
● Wind speed, air temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, gravity, earth
curvature, and atmospheric refraction are examples of natural error sources.
 Many of these environmental conditions can be compensated for by applying a
correction factor to each measurement.
● Commonly used correction factors are the parts per million (ppm) and curvature
and refraction constants.
● There are other natural phenomena that can lead to measurement errors.
Intense, direct sunlight may cause differential expansion of the components of
the instrument, resulting in minor errors. This effect can be minimized by
operating on cloudy days, times of lowsun angles, or using a parasol to shade
the instrument.
● Heat waves can cause distortion in lines of sight near reflective surfaces. The
effects of heat waves can be minimized by surveying in cooler, cloudy periods,
taking shorter measurements, or avoiding measurements taken over asphalt or
concrete in excessively hot weather.

INSTRUMENT ERRORS
● are caused by imperfectly constructed, adjusted, or calibrated surveying
equipment. Most of these errors can be reduced by properly leveling the
instrument, balancing backsight/foresight shots, reducing measurement
distances, and observing direct and reverse positions (double centering).
● Prolonged storage, exposure to rapid changes in temperature, and jarring during
transportation may lead to instrument maladjustments. Collimation and other
sighting errors can be determined and compensated for by specific instrument
adjustments.

HUMAN ERRORS
● are caused by physical limitations and inconsistent setup and observation habits
of the surveyor. For example, minor errors result from misaligning the telescope
crosshairs on the target or not holding the target rod perfectly plumb.
● These errors will always be present to some degree in every observation.
However, by following established setup and collection procedures, many
potential errors can be minimized.

METHODS OF MEASURING A HORIZONTAL DISTANCE

PACING
● Pacing is the simplest and easiest method for measuring distance.
● It is the process of walking the distance and counting the number of steps "paces" to
cover the distance.
● The distance is determined by multiplying the number of steps taken between two points
by one's pace factor.
 ● A person's pace factor is determined by pacing (walking) a measured distance, usually
300 to 500 ft, several times and determining the average length of pace (step).
● With practice it is possible to pace a distance with an error of less than 2 ft per 100 ft.
● One advantage of pacing for measuring distance is that it doesn't require any specialized
equipment.
● The biggest disadvantage is that it requires being able to walk the route. It is not very
useful for measuring distance in rough terrain, across swamps or any other terrain where
an individual could not walk the distance or walk in a straight line.

ODOMETER READINGS
● An odometer is a distance measuring device from one point to another by using a
vehicle, such as a bicycle or a car.
● It gives less precise measurement as there are so many errors not under our control.
● Most odometers work by counting wheel rotations and assume that the distance traveled
is the number of wheel rotations times the tire circumference.
 ● We first place the odometer on the initial point from where the distance is to be
measured and start moving while the odometer is placed alongside, towards the final
point. As soon as it reached the final point we then stopped and noted the readings.
● If nonstandard or severely worn or underinflated tires are used then this will cause some
error in the odometer.

TACHOMETRY (STADIA)
● The stadia technique of tacheometry is a popular method adopted for calculating
horizontal distance and vertical elevation.
● The horizontal distance between the staff station and the instrument station and the
elevation of the staff station along the instrument's line of sight is computed using this
approach with only one observation from the instrument station.
● used to determine the horizontal and vertical distance between two points. Thus,
eliminating the tedious process of chain surveying to measure horizontal distance.
● preferred over chain or tape surveying. It is faster and more convenient, especially in
hard terrains such as broken grounds, deep ravines, swampy areas, stretches of water
bodies, etc.
● The accuracy of this surveying technique ranges from 1/1000 to 1/10000.

TAPING
● The most accurate traditional method of measuring distances uses a steel tape.
● When proper procedures are followed the error will be less than 1.0 ft in 3,000 ft.
● The standard equipment for a taping party, usually at least three people, consists of a
tape, two range poles, a set of 11 chaining pins, two plumb bobs, a hand level, and a
field notebook. Individual items of taping equipment are described in the following
paragraphs.
EDM
● Electronic Distance Measurement, often abbreviated as EDM, is a technology used in
surveying to measure distances with exceptional accuracy.
● Unlike traditional methods that relied on chains and tapes, EDM utilizes electronic pulses
or waves to determine the precise distance between two points.
● This technology has significantly improved the efficiency and accuracy of surveying
processes.

TRIANGULATION
● Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle formed by
three survey control points.
● Using trigonometry and the measured length of just one side, the other distances in the
triangle are calculated.
● The shape of the triangles is important as there is a lot of inaccuracy in a long skinny
triangle, but one with base angles of about 45 degrees is ideal.
GPS
● GPSwas rapidly adapted for surveying, as it can give a position (Latitude, Longitude and
Height) directly, without the need to measure angles and distances between intermediate
points.
● Survey control could now be established almost anywhere and it was only necessary to
have a clear view of the sky so the signal from the GPS satellites could be received
clearly.
● GPS is similar in some ways to the Trilateration and EDM previously discussed, except
that the known positions are now the GPS satellites (and their orbits) 20,000 km in
space.
● The equipment and calculations are extremely complex, but for the user the process is
generally very simple.
● In the commonly available receivers, the GPS receiver almost instantly works out its
position (Latitude, Longitude and Height) with an uncertainty of a few metres, from the
data broadcast by the satellites. This data includes a description of the satellites
changing position (its orbit) and the time the data was transmitted.

SLOPE MEASUREMENTS

Generally, measurements are made horizontally, but on even, often man-made slopes the
distance can be measured directly on the slope, but the vertical or zenith angle must be
obtained.
● Horizontal Distance = sin Zenith Angle x Slope Distance
● Horizontal Distance = cos Vertical Angle x Slope Distance

WHAT IS TAPING?

Taping, or “chaining”, is the linear measurement of the horizontal distance between two points
using a surveyor’s tape. This may involve measuring the distance between two or more fixed
points, or the “laying out of specified distances from a known starting point. At first glance,
taping may appear to be simple and transparent, however, in order to get an accurate
measurement, a number of “corrections” may have been applied.

TAPING PROCEDURES
1. Lining in - shortest distance between two points in a straight line.
2. Applying tension - rear chain is anchor and head chain applies required tension.
3. Plumbing - horizontal distance requires tape to be horizontal and leveled.
4. Marking tape lengths - each application of the tape requires marking using chaining
pins to obtain total length.
5. Reading the tape - the graduated tape must be read correctly.
6. Recording the distance - the total length must be reported and recorded correctly.

TYPES OF CHAINS AND TAPES

● Gunter's Chain: Also known simply as "the chain," it is a traditional instrument used in
surveying for centuries. A Gunter's chain is typically made of 100 steel links, each 7.92
inches long, making the total length of the chain 66 feet. The chain is divided into 100
equal parts, called links.
● Engineer's Chain: Similar to the Gunter's chain, the engineer's chain is also composed
of 100 links, but each link is 1 foot long, making the total length of the chain 100 feet. It's
often used in the United States for surveying and measuring purposes.
● Revenue Chain: This type of chain is typically used for cadastral surveying and property
demarcation. It's similar to the Gunter's chain but standardized for cadastral work.
● Steel Tapes: These tapes are made of steel, typically with graduations marked in feet,
tenths, and hundredths of a foot. Steel tapes are durable and commonly used in
surveying for their accuracy and longevity.
 ● Fiberglass Tapes: Fiberglass tapes are lightweight and flexible, making them suitable
for various surveying tasks. They are marked with graduations similar to steel tapes but
are not as durable in harsh conditions.
● Cloth or Linen Tapes: These tapes are made of cloth or linen material and are less
commonly used today due to their tendency to stretch and wear over time. They were
historically used for surveying before the advent of steel and fiberglass tapes.

TAPING ERROR

1. Instrumental Error: a tape may have different length due to defect in manufacture or
repair or as a result of kinks
2. Natural Error: length of tape varies from normal due to temperature, wind, and weight of
tape (sag)
3. Personal Error: tape person may be careless in setting pins, reading the tape, or
manipulating the equipment.

Instrumental and natural error can be corrected mathematically, but personal error can only be
corrected by re measure. Also, when a tape is obtained, it should either be standardized or
checked against a standard.

TAPE ERROR CORRECTION

Measuring between two existing points:

1. If a tape is long, the distance will be short, thus any correction must be added.
2. If the tape is short, the distance will be long, thus any correction must be subtracted.
3. If you are setting or establishing a point, the above rule is reversed. Generally can
correct for tape length, temperature, tension, and sag, but tension and sag are negated
by increasing tension to approximately 25-30 lbs.

BREAKING TAPE

The term breaking tape is used to describe the procedure for measuring directly
horizontal distance on sloping ground, or through obstacles that do not permit the use of a
full tape length. The procedure used in breaking tape is the same as ordinary chaining on
level ground, except that the distances are measured by using portions of a tape.
 Generally, you will start breaking tape when the slope of the existing ground exceeds
5 percent (this depends also on the height of the chainmen). The reason for breaking tape
is that the chainman on the lower ground will have difficulty in holding the tape steady and
horizontal when his point of support exceeds his height. You also break tape to avoid
hazardous measurements, such as crossing power lines and making measurements across
a heavily traveled highway.

To measure the distance AB, the chainmen follow a specific procedure: the rear
chainman positions himself at point A while the head chainman moves forward a full tape length
uphill towards point B, dropping the tape approximately on line with two range poles. The head
chainman then returns along the tape until reaching a point where a partial tape length, held
level, is below the rear chainman's armpits at point A. At this point, a convenient whole-foot
graduation is selected, and the chainmen measure off the partial tape length (distance Aa) from
the starting point, with the head chainman calling out the specific graduation held. The rear
chainman checks alignment, then moves forward to point a, giving a pin to the head chainman.
This process continues until a full station is measured or a full-tape length measurement can
resume. For distance bc, plumb bobs are likely used to transfer the distance to the ground. The
rear chainman only gives the head chainman a pin at each intermediate point of a tape length,
keeping the pin at full tape lengths to track the number of stations laid out as in ordinary
horizontal chaining.

WHAT IS ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT?

ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

● is a method of determining the length between two points using electromagnetic waves.
● EDM is commonly carried out with digital instruments called theodolites.
 ● EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of surveying equipment and
can be used to measure distances of up to 100 kilometers.
● Each piece of EDM equipment available at Engineer Supply provides dependably
accurate distance measurements displayed on an easy-to-read digital screen.
● Here are the three types of instruments that are used for electronic distance
measurement, which are based on the methods being used:
○ Microwave Instruments — Also called tellurometers, these instruments use
microwaves. And they have been around since the 1950’s.
○ Infrared Wave Instruments — Uses prism reflectors that pick up amplitude
modulated infrared waves at the end of a line.
○ Visible Light Wave Instruments — Uses modulated light waves to measure up
to a specific range.

EDM DEVICES

THEODOLITES
● An instrument for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles, as used in
triangulation networks.
● It is a tool used in the surveying and engineering industry, but theodolites have
been adapted for other specialized purposes as well.
● A theodolite consists of a telescope mounted movably within two perpendicular
axes, the horizontal or trunnion axis, and the vertical axis.
● When the telescope is pointed at a desired object, the angle of each of these
axes can be measured with great precision, typically on the scale of arcseconds.
● The measurements are typically recorded by hand as they are not recorded by a
computer or data collector.
TOTAL STATIONS
● A total station is an optical instrument used in modern surveying.
● It is a combination of an electronic theodolite (transit), an electronic distance
measuring device (EDM) and software running on an external computer, such as
a laptop or data collector.
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