110
in the area. One or more GPS survey quality receivers can
FIGURE 6.21 GPS baseline measurement.
6.15.3.3 Continuously Operating Reference Stations
A GPS receiver of survey quality could be permanently
installed in a desirable location with a known location, which
can be used as the starting point for any GPS calculation
FIGURE 6.22 GPS real-time baseline measurements.
Practical Civil Engineering
be used to concurrently retrieve GPS data at any necessary
point. These data can be used to compute the positions in
unique combination with the GPS data collected from the
Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS). If more
than one CORS is easily available, the unknown position with
respect to these multiple known positions can be computed,
offering more faith in the outcomes. The duration of the infer-
ences totally depends on the distance from the CORS, but it is
usually 1 or 2 hours.
6.15.3.4 Heights from GPS
GPS automatically gives height, latitude, and longitude as it
is a three-dimensional system. However, the height will be
above the conceptual surface of the earth used for measure-
ments, regarded as the ellipsoid (so the height is known as the
ellipsoidal height). It will not be above the mean sea level.
Due to the differing density of the earth, the signi cant differ-
ence between ellipsoidal height and MSL height can be large
(up to 100 m) and uneven.
 7 Building Materials
7.1 PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES OF
BUILDING MATERIALS
Building materials have an important role to play in this
modern age of technology. The rapid advancement of con-
structional methods and changes in the organization of the
building industry may in uence the choice of materials.
7.1.1 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS
• Density is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous
material.
• Speci c weight also known as the unit weight is the
weight per unit volume of material.
• Porosity is indicative of other major properties of
material, such as bulk density, heat conductivity,
durability, etc.
• Void ratio is de ned as the ratio of volume of voids
to the volume of solids.
• Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb
water vapor from air.
• Water absorption denotes the ability of the material
to absorb and retain water.
• Weathering resistance is the ability of a material to
endure alternate wet and dry conditions for a long
period without considerable deformation and loss of
mechanical strength.
• Water permeability is the capacity of a material to
allow water to penetrate under pressure. Materials
like glass, steel, and bitumen are impervious.
• Frost resistance denotes the ability of a water-sat-
urated material to endure repeated freezing and
thawing with considerable decrease of mechanical
strength.
• Heat conductivity is the ability of a material to con-
duct heat.
• Thermal capacity is the property of a material to
absorb heat described by its speci c heat.
• Chemical resistance is the ability of a material to
withstand the action of acids, alkalis, sea water, and
gases.
• Durability is the ability of a material to resist the
combined effects of atmospheric and other factors.
7.1.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Strength is found from tests on standard cylinders,
prisms, and cubes—smaller for homogeneous mate-
rials and larger for less homogeneous ones.
• Hardness is the ability of a material to resist penetra-
tion by a harder body. Mohs scale is used to nd the
hardness of materials.
• Elasticity is the ability of a material to restore its ini-
tial form and dimensions after the load is removed.
• Plasticity is the ability of a material to change its
shape under load without cracking and to retain this
shape after the load is removed.
7.2 STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS
Typical structural clay products are building brick, paving
brick, terra-cotta facing tile, roo ng tile, and drainage pipe.
Structural clay products are made from 35% to 55% clays
or argillaceous (clayey) shale, 25% to 45% quartz, and 25%
to 55% feldspar. Colors can range from buff and other light
shades of brown through red to black.
7.2.1 PROPERTIES
The properties exhibited by structural clay products are
determined by particle size, ring temperature, and ultimate
microstructure. Lower ring temperatures are employed—
typically in the range of 1050°C–1100°C (approximately
1925°F–2000°F). Because of the presence of large and small
particles in their microstructures, red clay products have
relatively high compressive strengths.
7.3 ROCKS AND STONES
Stone is a “naturally available building material” which has
been used from the early age of civilization. Stones used for
civil engineering works can be classi ed geologically, physi-
cally, and chemically.
Geological classi cation: Igneous, sedimentary, and met-
amorphic rocks.
i. Igneous rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling
and solidifying of the rock masses from their molten
magmatic condition of the material of the earth. Trap
and basalt belong to this category.
ii. Sedimentary rocks: Due to weathering action of
water, wind and frost, existing rocks disintegrates.
The disintegrated material is carried by wind and
water; the water being the most powerful medium.
Sand stones, lime stones, mud stones, etc., belong to
this class of rock.
iii. Metamorphic rocks: Previously formed igneous
and sedimentary rocks undergo changes due to
metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat.
For example, due to metamorphic action, granite
becomes gneiss, trap and basalt change to schist and
laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand stone
becomes quartzite, and mud stone becomes slate.
111
112
Physical classi cation: Based on the structure, rocks are
classi ed as Strati ed rocks, Unstrati ed rocks, and Foliated
Rocks
i. Strati ed rocks: These rocks have a layered
structure. Sand stones, lime stones, slate, etc., are
examples.
ii. Unstrati ed rocks: These rocks are not layered.
They possess crystalline and compact grains.
Granite, trap, marble, etc., are examples.
iii. Foliated rock: These rocks have a tendency to split
along a de nite direction.
Chemical classi cation: Chemically, the rocks may be classi-
ed into Siliceous rocks, Argillaceous rocks, and Calcareous
rocks.
i. Siliceous rocks: The main content of these rocks is
silica.
ii. Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these
rocks is argil, i.e., clay. These stones are hard and
durable but they are brittle.
iii. Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these
rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a calcare-
ous rock.
7.3.1 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES
i. Strength: The stone should be able to resist the load
coming on it.
ii. Durability: Stones selected should be capable of
resisting adverse effects of natural forces.
iii. Hardness: The stone used in oors and pavements
should be able to resist abrasive forces.
iv. Toughness: Building stones should be tough enough
to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.
v. Speci c gravity: The speci c gravity of good build-
ing stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.
vi. Porosity and absorption: Building stone should not
be porous.
vii. Dressing: Giving required shape to the stone is
called dressing.
viii. Appearance: In case of the stones to be used for
face works, where appearance is a primary require-
ment, its color and ability to receive polish are major
factors.
ix. Seasoning: Good stones should be free from the
quarry sap. Laterite stones should not be used for
6–12 months after quarrying.
7.3.2 TESTS ON STONES
The common tests conducted on stones are Crushing strength
test, Water absorption test, Abrasion test, Impact test, and
Acid test. The details of these tests are available in standard
codes.
Practical Civil Engineering
7.3.3 COMMON BUILDING STONES
i. Basalt and trap: The structure is medium to ne
grained and compact. Their weight varies from 18 to
29 kN/m3. The compressive strength varies from 200
to 350 N/mm 2. They are used as pavement.
ii. Granite: Granites are also igneous rocks. The color
varies from light gray to pink. The structure is crys-
talline, ne to coarse-grained. Speci c gravity is
from 2.6 to 2.7 and compressive strength is 100–
250 N/mm2. They are used as coarse aggregates in
concrete.
iii. Sand stone: These are sedimentary rocks, and hence
strati ed. They consist of quartz and feldspar. They
are found in various colors like white, grey, red,
buff, brown, yellow, and even dark gray. The spe-
ci c gravity varies from 1.85 to 2.7 and compressive
strength varies from 20 to 170 N/mm 2. Its porosity
varies from 5% to 25%.
iv. Slate: These are metamorphic rocks. They are com-
posed of quartz, mica, and clay minerals. The color
varies from dark gray, greenish gray, purple gray to
black. The speci c gravity is 2.6–2.7. Compressive
strength varies from 100 to 200 N/mm2.
v. Laterite: It is a metamorphic rock. It is having
porous and spongy structure. It contains high
percentage of iron oxide. Its speci c gravity is
1.85  and compressive strength varies from 1.9 to
2.3 N/mm 2.
vi. Marble: This is a metamorphic rock. Its speci c
gravity is 2.65 and compressive strength is 70–75
N/mm2. It is used for facing and ornamental works.
vii. Gneiss: It is a metamorphic rock. It is having ne to
coarse grains. Alternative dark and white bands are
common. The speci c gravity varies from 2.5 to 3.0
and crushing strength varies from 50 to 200 N/mm2.
viii. Quartzite: Quartzites are metamorphic rocks. The
structure is ne to coarse grained and often granular
and branded. The speci c gravity varies from 2.55 to
2.65. Crushing strength varies from 50 to 300 N/mm2.
7.4 WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS
Wood has been used as a building material for thousands of
years. Pieces of wood that is smaller than 127 mm (5″) wide
by 127 mm thick (regardless of length) are generally referred
to as lumber. These pieces are machine-planed and sawn to t
certain dimensional speci cations (e.g., 50.8 mm × 101.6 mm
(2″ × 4″), 50.8 mm × 203.2 mm (2″ × 8″, etc.)) and are primarily
used in residential construction. Pieces of wood over 127 mm
(5″) wide by 127 mm thick (regardless of length) are referred
to as timber, and any timber pieces that exceed 203.2 mm
(8″) wide by 203.2 mm (8″) thick are referred to as beams.
Another type of wood commonly used in construction is
known as engineered wood. As its name implies, engineered
wood is the product of a more intricate fabrication process in
Building Materials
which various wood strands, bers, veneers, or other forms of
wood are glued.
7.4.1 PROBLEMS OF USING WOOD AS
A BUILDING MATERIAL
i. Shrinkage and swelling of wood: Wood is a hygro-
scopic material. This means that it will adsorb
moisture.
ii. Deterioration of wood: Biotic agents include decay
and mold fungi, bacteria, and insects. Abiotic agents
include sun, wind, water, certain chemicals, and re.
iii. Biotic deterioration of wood: Biological deterio-
ration of wood due to attack by decay fungi, wood
boring insects, and marine borers during its pro-
cessing and in service has technical and economical
importance.
iv. Fungi: It is necessary to give some short informa-
tion about fungi agents to take measures against the
wood deterioration.
Physiological requirements of wood destroying
and wood inhabiting fungi:
a. A favorable temperature: The temperature must
be 25°C–30°C for optimum growth.
b. An adequate supply of oxygen: Oxygen is essen-
tial for the growth of fungi.
c. Moisture: Generally wood will not be attacked
by the common fungi at moisture contents below
the ber saturation point (FSP).
d. Nutrients: Wood has carbon content. That
means, wood is a very suitable nutrient for fungi.
Because fungi derive their energy from oxida-
tion of organic compounds. Decay fungi wood
rotters can use polysaccharides while stain fungi
evidently require simple forms such as soluble
carbohydrates, proteins, and other substances
present in the parenchyma cell of sapwood.
Additionally, the presence of nitrogen in wood is
necessary for the growth of fungi.
e. Insects: Termites, carpenter ants, and marine
borers.
i. Termites: Subterranean termites dam-
age wood that is untreated, moist, in direct
contact with standing water, soil, and other
sources of moisture.
Dry wood termites attack and inhabit
wood that has been dried to moisture con-
tents as low as 5%–10%.
Carpenter ants: Carpenter ants do not
feed on wood.
They attack most often wood in ground
contact or wood that is intermittently wetted.
ii. Carpenter bees: They cause damage to
unpainted wood.
iii. Marine borers: They rapidly destroy wood in
salt water and brackish water.
113
7.4.2 MINIMIZING THE PROBLEMS OF WOOD
1. Coating: Coating provides protection to wood used
both indoors and outdoors. But coating does not
totally prevent changes in moisture content. Coating
with solid color or pigmented stains protects wood
against ultraviolet rays. Deteriorating paint lm
actually increases the decay hazard.
2. Drying: Generally wood will not be attacked by the
common fungi at moisture content below the FSP.
FSP for different wood lies between 20% and 35%,
and 30% is accepted generally: Fungi cannot attack
wood used indoor and in heated rooms, since the
equilibrium moisture content is much more below
than FSP. One of the most effective ways to prevent
degradation of wood is to thoroughly dry it and keep
it dry. The last case is very important since even
wood that has been kiln dried will readily regain
moisture if placed in a humid environment.
Wood can be dried in air or in some type of dry
kiln. Air drying alone is not suf cient for wood
items which are used in heated rooms. Therefore
kiln drying is necessary. Kiln drying has many
advantages: One of them is the killing of staining or
wood destroying fungi or insects that may be attack
the wood and lower its grade. Wood that will be used
indoor needs only to be dried to provide for long-
term protection against rot.
3. Treating with wood preservatives: Some of the
wood preservatives may harm humans and other
creatures. For this reason, if wood is used outdoor
in situations where it is often wet or in close proxim-
ity to liquid water, then wood must be treated with
wood-preserving chemicals to achieve long-term
durability.
Wood preservatives are divided into two groups:
Water-borne and oil-borne chemicals. About 75% of
wood that is commercially treated today is treated
with water-borne salts, and chromated copper arse-
nate is the compound used in treating for the greatest
volume of wood.
Oil-based or oil-borne preservatives are generally
used for treating of wood used outdoors in indus-
trial applications, such as ties, piling, and poles. In
a serious situation, wood is treated with water-borne
preservatives.
4. Remedial treatment: Retreatment of wood window
frames, door frames, and wood timber and beams
is sometimes carried out by drilling holes in areas
where decay has begun and lling these holes with
a suitable treating compound. Treating compound
in the form of solid rods is mostly preferred since
it provides a slow release of active ingredients.
Retreatment of wood used in ground contact must be
realized by application of pastes and wrapping with
preservative-impregnate bandages.
114
7.4.3 SEASONING OF TIMBER
This is a process by which moisture content in a freshly cut
tree is reduced to a suitable level.
i. Natural seasoning: It may be air seasoning or water
seasoning. On about 300 mm high-platform timber
balks are stacked as shown in Figure 7.1. A well-
seasoned timber contains only 15% moisture. This
is a slow but a good process of seasoning. Water
seasoning is carried out on the banks of rivers. The
thicker end of the timber is kept pointing upstream
side. After a period of 2–4 weeks the timber is taken
out. Then timber is stalked in a shed with free air
circulation.
a. Arti cial seasoning: In this method timber is
seasoned in a chamber with regulated heat,
controlled humidity, and proper air circulation.
Seasoning can be completed in 4–5 days only.
Different ways of arti cial seasoning are given
here.
i. Boiling: In this method timber is immersed
in water and then water is boiled for
3–4 hours. Then it is dried slowly.
ii. Kiln seasoning: Kiln is an airtight cham-
ber. Timber to be seasoned is placed inside
it. Then fully saturated air with a tempera-
ture 35°C–38°C is forced in the kiln. The
heat gradually reaches inside timber. Then
relative humidity is gradually reduced and
temperature is increased, and maintained
till desired degree of moisture content is
achieved.
The kiln used may be stationary or pro-
gressive. In progressive kiln the carriages
carrying timber travel from one end of kiln
to other end gradually. The hot air is sup-
plied from the discharging end so that tem-
perature increase is gradual from charging
end to discharging end. This method is used
for seasoning on a larger scale.
FIGURE 7.1 Natural seasoning.
Practical Civil Engineering
iii. Chemical seasoning: In this method, the
timber is immersed in a solution of suitable
salt. Then the timber is dried in a kiln.
iv. Electrical seasoning: In this method high-
frequency alternate electric current is passed
through timber. However, it is a costly
process.
7.5 MATERIALS FOR MAKING CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggre-
gate bonded together with uid cement which hardens over
time. In Portland cement concrete when the aggregate is
mixed together with the dry cement and water, they form a
uid mass that is easily molded into shape. Major characters:
1. Has high compressive strength.
2. It is a corrosion-resistance material
3. It hardens with age.
4. It is more economical
5. It binds rapidly with steel, and as it is weak in ten-
sion, the steel reinforcement is placed in cement con-
crete at suitable places to take up the tensile stresses.
6. It has a tendency to shrink when:
a. There is initial shrinkage of cement concrete
which is mainly due to the loss of water through
forms, absorption by surfaces of forms, etc.
b. The shrinkage of cement concrete occurs as it
hardens. This tendency of cement concrete can
be minimized by proper curing of concrete.
7. It has a tendency to be porous
8. It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion.
7.5.1 MATERIALS USED IN RCC WORK
1. Cement: Most of the cement concrete work in build-
ing construction is done with ordinary Portland
cement at present. But other special varieties of
cement such as rapid hardening cement and high alu-
mina cement are used under certain circumstance.