Bull Eng Geol Environ (2017) 76:241–251
DOI 10.1007/s10064-015-0807-9
ORIGINAL PAPER
An excavatability classification system for surface excavation
in sedimentary rocks
Maybelle Liang1 • Edy Tonnizam Mohamad1 • Ibrahim Komoo1 • Chau-Khun Ma1
Received: 23 May 2015 / Accepted: 25 September 2015 / Published online: 8 October 2015
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract This paper describes the development of an
excavatability classification system for surface excavation
of weathered sedimentary rock based on practical excava-
tions and statistical analysis. Extensive field and laboratory
studies were undertaken on three sedimentary rock sites
with a range of weathering and strength conditions in the
Iskandar region, South Johore, Malaysia. Rock mass
descriptions were made in the field and rock material tests
were carried out in the laboratory. Statistical analysis was
used to study the correlation between the rock parameters
and the productivity of excavation. A classification rating
system based on the analysis results is proposed. The pro-
posed classification system incorporates rock parameters
such as point load strength (Is50), Schmidt Rebound ham-
mer value (R), uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), den-
sity of rock (c), indirect tensile strength (ITS), second-cycle
of slake durability index (Id2), joint number (Jn), joint
spacing (Js), joint length (JL), joint direction (Jd), existence
of iron pan (IP), moisture content (Mc) and existence of
bedding. The proposed model was then verified against
further excavations on another sedimentary rock site. It was
found that the productivities recorded correlated well with
the proposed system when tested on a fourth site.
Keywords Excavatability classification  Productivity 
Practical excavation  Rock properties  Joint
characterisation
& Maybelle Liang
maybelle_liang@hotmail.com
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Introduction
The selection of suitable surface excavation methods and
plant is particularly important in engineering projects.
Factors such as environmental constraints, rock properties,
and size of the site may affect the selection of machines
required for excavation. Incorrect selection of equipment
and technique can result in unrecoverable costs and should
be avoided.
Surface excavation is usually accomplished by using
hydraulic excavators. Over the past decades, the capabili-
ties of excavators have progressively improved. Due to
these improvements in machinery technology, the use of
excavators has gained popularity, particularly in weaker
sedimentary rocks.
Ripping, blasting, or other ground preparation methods
may also be considered necessary when either the physical
limit of excavation is reached, or the cost of excavation
could otherwise become too expensive (Basarir and Karpuz
2004). For these reasons, excavatability assessments,
especially in tropically weathered weak sedimentary rock,
are of vital importance.
Several attempts have been made in previous research to
classify the characterisation of rock mass into well-sys-
tematised classification for the evaluation of rock mass
behaviour. Various standard engineering classifications are
available (Bieniawski 1989; Palmstrom 1995; Hoek et al.
2005; Pettifer and Fookes 1994; Gillette 1916; Abdullatif
and Cruden 1983), but evaluation and surface excavation
works in tropically weathered heterogeneous sedimentary
rock mass present a major challenge to practicing geolo-
gists and engineers due to its geological complexity,
compared to homogeneous rock masses such as granite.
Surface excavation works in a tropically weathered area
need to consider weathering states, lithology, structure, and
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242
stratigraphy of the interbedding layers. The complex
structure of these materials resulting from depositional,
weathering, and tectonic history, makes it difficult to
simplify and derive a general rock mass classification for
excavation purposes. Weathering of surface rocks in trop-
ical regions has produced thick weathering profiles; in
sedimentary rocks, these weathered profiles can increase
the variability of the parent and this marked variability
requires adequate judgement of characteristics for planning
economic excavation (Ibrahim Komoo 1995; Zainab
Mohamed 2004). For example, combinations of sandstone,
siltstone, and claystone have large differences in their
engineering properties, but can be found interlayered in the
same rock mass. Higher strength layers can also be found
to be interbedded between lower strength layers, which
feature can both assist and hinder excavation works. In
addition, discontinuities are usually present at a range of
scales in sedimentary rock masses. The rock mass char-
acteristics can be further complicated by other factors, such
as thickness and orientation of bedding and spacing of
joints. The issues are even more critical and confusing,
especially in a tropical climate where the rock strength and
excavatability might be susceptible to the weather or water
content in the rock (Anon 1995; Matti 1999). The influence
of water content can be a great challenge in weak rock in
tropical areas where some original minerals and fabric have
undergone alteration. Some of the secondary minerals will
absorb water easily and subsequently reduce the original
rock strength. Heavy rainfall will increase the water con-
tent of rock material especially for those highly weathered
to completely weathered materials, due to the loose
Fig. 1 Johore map showing the location of studied sites
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M. Liang et al.
interaction between grains as weathering has taken place.
Hawkins and McConnell (1992) found that an increase in
moisture content of as little as 1 % from a dry state can
have a marked effect on both strength and deformability of
sandstones. They reported a 78 % reduction in uniaxial
compressive strength of clay rich sandstones upon satu-
ration, whereas siliceous sandstones reduced their strength
by 8 % upon saturation. Their research also indicated that
development of pore pressure during loading is negligible
especially in pure sandstones and, hence, does not play a
significant role in moisture-related strength reduction.
They concluded that the degree of sensitivity to moisture
content is controlled primarily by the proportions of quartz
and clay minerals present and to a lesser extent by the
rock microfabric. Erguler and Ulusay (2009) report
reductions of up to 90, 93, and 90 % with increasing water
in UCS, average modulus of elasticity, and tensile strength
respectively of clay bearing rocks. The tested rocks were
collected from different parts of Turkey and included
marl, mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, and tuff. In their
tested rocks, much of the strength reduction occurred
between 0 and 2 % water content, particularly with
stronger rocks.
Studied sites
Studies have been carried out in three different sedimentary
rock sites in South Johore, Malaysia from which the con-
clusions in this paper are developed. The details of the sites
are as follows:
An excavatability classification system for surface excavation in sedimentary rocks 243

1. SiLC 1 is currently developed by UEM (M) Berhad.
Excavation works were carried out on fourteen panels,
which included slightly weathered (SW) to completely
weathered (CW) sandstone to SW to highly weathered
(HW) claystone;
2. Legoland belongs to a private entity, Merlin Enter-
tainments. At this site, 20 panels were investigated,
which included SW to CW sandstone and MW to CW
claystone; and
3. SiLC 2, which is also developed by UEM (M) Berhad,
consists of 14 panels, which included SW to CW
sandstone to MW to HW claystone.
All of these sites are located in the Iskandar region,
Nusajaya of South Johore, Malaysia. The locations of these
sites are located in the map of Fig. 1.
Geology
The selected sites are mainly comprised of claystone and
sandstone layers of the Jurong Formation with bedding
thicknesses varying from a few centimeters to approxi-
mately 2.0 m. Physical characteristics of the sandstone are
generally random in colour and are fine grained, ranging
from 0.063 to 0.2 mm. Plant fossils discovered in it have

Fig. 2 Geological map of Peninsular Malaysia (Mineral and Geoscience Department 2004)

123
244 M. Liang et al.

not yet been determined, but a number of fossil collections Rock mass description
from Singapore demonstrate an Upper Triassic to Mid
Jurassic age for the unit (Burton 1973). Figure 2 shows the In SiLC 1, the length of studied rock exposure is 140 m
geological map of the studied sites. and the height is 15.5 m. This site comprises sedimentary

Fig. 3 Sketches of Lithological zones and mass weathering states of studied sites at Nusajaya, Johor. a SiLC 1, b Legoland, and c SiLC 2

123
 Table 1 Geotechnical descriptions of rock masses
Rock Weathering Description
type zone
Texture Friability R values No. of joint sets and Joint Joint trace Iron pan (mm) Moisture
major type spacing (m) length (m) condition

SS SW Preserved original Difficult to break the edges by [30 3, inclined 0.41–1.05 4.8–9.5 No Dry
texture many blows of geological
hammer
MW Preserved with some Easily broken along discontinuities \30 6, equally horizontal 0.06–0.98 1.0–8.0 Partially filled Dry
disintegration at by several blows of geological and vertical along joints
discontinuities hammer
HW Rock matrix slightly Easily broken by single blow of 15–30 4, equally horizontal 0.54–0.79 2.8–7.2 Partially filled Partially wet
decomposed geological hammer or can be and vertical along joints
crumbled by hand pressure under
wet conditions
CW Rock matrix highly Crumbled easily by hand pressure 0–15 3, inclined 0.19–0.36 0.8–1.6 Partially filled Wet
decomposed even when the rock is dry along joints
An excavatability classification system for surface excavation in sedimentary rocks

S SW Preserved original Strong and hard originally but \25 3, vertical 0.15–0.36 1.14–2.16 – Wet
texture breakable using geological
hammer under wet conditions
MW Preserved with some Easily broken along discontinuities \15 2, equally horizontal 0.32–0.58 0.8–2.8 – Dry
disintegration at by several blows of geological and vertical
discontinuities hammer
HW Minerals slightly Easily broken by single blow of 0 4, equally horizontal 0.06–0.20 1.4–2.6 Partially filled Dry
decomposed geological hammer or hardly and vertical along joints
crumbled by hand pressure
SS sandstone, S claystone
245

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246 M. Liang et al.

layers with thicknesses from 6 to 31 m. The claystone is
found interbedded with sandstone layers on a few occa-
sions. Rock hardness determined from rebound hammer
tests varies considerably, both due to differences in rock
type and weathering states. The joint spacing was also
observed to be smaller at the upper portion compared to
the bottom portion of the outcrop. The upper parts of the
rock mass, which are more weathered, and the finer
grained rocks can be readily excavated using a mechani-
cal excavator, whereas the lower parts are harder to
excavate. Bedding dips are mainly in the range of 30°–
50°. The distribution of the different rock types and
degrees of weathering of the rock mass is presented in
Fig. 3a. The limit of excavatability observed during
practical excavation tests is included in this figure. The
site is underlain by light grey SW sandstone where the
material cannot be broken by hand pressure even in wet
conditions. It was observed that excavation is almost
impossible even for weak rock when it is interbedded with
strong layers, see 1S1 and 1S3.
For the Legoland site, the length of studied rock expo-
sure is 171 m. The maximum and minimum height of the
rock exposure is 7 and 20 m, respectively. This site has a
reasonably consistent sequence of predominantly sand-
stones and claystones. At the discontinuity surfaces, traces
of iron pan can be observed, ranging from a few mil-
limetres to a few centimetres. Bedding dips are mainly at
30°–60°. Lithological sequences, orientation of bedding, as
well as limits of excavatability of the rock mass are pre-
sented in Fig. 3b. In this site, several protruding areas of
rock are left behind as can be identified by 2SS4, 2SS11,
2SS13, 2SS15, and 2SS17 in this figure. This protruding
rock mass is not excavatable by excavator Komatsu PC 300
and blasting is expected to be required.
In the SiLC 2 site, the length of studied rock exposure
is approximately 130 m. The site has almost flat topog-
raphy, with an average height of 17 m. The upper portion
of the rock mass has experienced greater weathering
compared to the bottom portion of the rock mass. At least
six different joint sets are physically observed. The sketch
of lithological sequences of SiLC 2 site is presented in
Fig. 3c. It was observed that the excavation in this site is
relatively easier with only one protruding rock mass found
in a lithological sequence identified as 3SS5, which is SW
sandstone.
Field and laboratory studies
Field investigations include practical excavation, charac-
terisation of rock masses (ISRM 2007) in terms of rock
type, weathering, discontinuity set number, discontinuity
spacing, discontinuity trace length, joint direction, iron
pan, bedding, and Schmidt hammer hardness tests were
carried out. Results of field investigations are given in
Table 1. Block samples were taken from each area of the
excavation, and rock property tests were conducted on
specimens cored from those blocks, at the Geotechnic
laboratory of the Department of Geotechnics and Trans-
portation of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). The
tests carried out included uniaxial compressive strength,
point load strength, indirect tensile strength, density
determination, moisture content determination, and slake
durability index. The results of these tests are given in
Table 2. All laboratory testing and field investigations were
conducted in accordance with the International Society for
Rock Mechanics Suggested methods (ISRM 2007).
Practical excavations
The practical excavation rate (Q) was recorded in exca-
vations, which include MW, HW, and CW sandstones and
claystones. It should be noted that the SW zone is beyond
the limit of excavatability for the plant in use as the
material was found to be too strong. The Q was designed to
be comparable for different excavators with various prop-
erties as shown in the equation as follows:

Table 2 Summary of laboratory test results

Rock Weathering Mean c: No of c Mean Is50 No of Mean No of Mean No of Mean No of Id2
type state kg/cm2 tests : MPa Is50 tests ITS: MPa ITS tests UCS: MPa UCS tests Id2 : % tests

SS SW 2569 30 3.17 10 3.6 10 63.53 10 88 3

MW 2514 30 0.86 10 1.91 10 23.5 10 82.86 3
HW 2487 30 0.22 10 1.11 10 5.365201 10 21.11 3
CW 2386 30 0.01 10 – – – – – –
S SW 2285 30 1.3 10 0.95 10 19.1 10 72.63 3
MW 2474 30 0.58 10 0.82 10 14.03 10 51.28 3
HW 2687 30 0.21 10 – – – – – –
CW 2552 30 – 10 – – – – – –

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An excavatability classification system for surface excavation in sedimentary rocks 247

Q m3 =kWh The mean Q in each lithological zone was calculated as the
average of three continuous excavation cycles of 2 min.
Number of Bucket  Reference Bucket Capacityðm3 Þ
¼ : The excavation operation was carried out by Komatsu
Engine powerðkWÞ  Time of ExcavationðhÞ
PC300-6 hydraulic excavator. The properties and opera-
ð1Þ tional specifications of the selected excavator are presented
in Table 3. Table 4 shows the excavation measurements.
Table 3 Specification of Komatsu PC300-6 hydraulic excavator
Specification Value
Komatsu PC300-6
Statistical analysis for prediction of productivity
Engine power 128 kw
Operating weight 28,850 kg In order to analyze the correlation of all tested parameters
Max travel speed 5.5 km/h (recorded from laboratory tests and field study), all the
Track gauge 2590 mm parameters together with Q obtained from practical exca-
Reference bucket capacity 1.3 m3 vation were processed through a statistical model versus
Q in SPSS. The Q was introduced as a dependent variable,

Table 4 The excavation measurements

Lithological zone Weathering grade Rock type Bedding Number of Q (m3/kWh) Mean Q (m3/kWh)
buckets
1 2 3 1 2 3

(a) The excavation measurements in SiLC 1

1SS1 HW Sandstone No 4 4 4 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
1SS1/1SS3 HW Sandstone Yes 4 5 4 0.99 1.24 0.99 1.08
1SS5/1S1 HW Sandstone/claystone Yes 5 5 6 1.25 1.25 1.50 1.33
1S1 HW Claystone No 5 4 6 1.24 0.99 1.50 1.24
1SS7 MW Sandstone Yes 2 2 3 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.58
1SS7/1S2 MW Sandstone/claystone Yes 2 4 3 0.5 0.99 0.75 0.75
1S2 MW Claystone No 5 4 5 1.25 1.0 1.25 1.17
1SS10 MW Sandstone No 2 2 2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
1SS11 CW Sandstone No 7 7 7 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75
1SS10/1SS11 MW/CW Sandstone No 5 4 5 1.24 0.99 1.24 1.16
(b) The excavation measurements in Legoland
2SS1 MW Sandstone No 2 2 3 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.58
2SS1/2S1/2SS3 MW/HW/MW Sandstone/claystone/sandstone Yes 2 2 2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
2SS3 HW Sandstone No 4 3 3 0.99 0.75 0.75 0.83
2SS3/2SS5 MW/HW Sandstone Yes 2 2 3 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.58
2SS5/2SS6 HW/CW Sandstone Yes 6 5 6 1.42 1.18 1.42 1.34
2SS6/2SS7 CW Sandstone Yes 8 7 8 2.0 1.75 20 1.92
2SS12 MW Sandstone No 2 2 1 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.42
2S3 CW Claystone No 7 7 8 1.75 1.75 2.0 1.92
(c) The excavation measurements in SiLC 2
3S1/3S2 HW/MW Claystone No 4 4 4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
3SS2/3SS3 HW/MW Sandstone No 2 2 2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
3SS4/3SS5 MW/CW Sandstone Yes 6 5 5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.17
3SS5/3SS7 CW/HW Sandstone Yes 6 5 6 1.42 1.18 1.42 1.34
3SS7/3S3 HW Sandstone/claystone Yes 4 3 3 1.0 0.75 0.75 0.83
3S3/3S4 HW/MW Claystone No 4 4 5 1.0 1.0 1.25 1.08
3S4/3S5 HW/MW Claystone Yes 4 4 4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
3S5 HW Claystone No 5 6 6 1.25 1.5 1.5 1.42
3SS9 CW Sandstone No 8 7 7 2.0 1.75 1.75 1.83

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248 M. Liang et al.

whilst all other parameters were introduced as independent
variables. It should be noted that the model was analyzed
using multiple linear regression. The processed parameters
include point load strength (Is50), Schmidt Rebound
hammer value (R), uniaxial compressive strength (UCS),
density (Density), indirect test strength (ITS), second-cycle
of slake durability index (Id2), joint number (Jn), joint
spacing (Js), joint length (JL), joint direction (Jd), existence
of iron pan (IP), moisture content (Mc), and existence of
bedding (Bedding). Based on the results of multiple linear
regression in SPSS, it was found that some parameters can
be excluded from the list of predictors where the accuracy
of model is still guaranteed.
Development of a new excavatability classification
system
Pearson correlation coefficients (PCC) were used in this
study to determine the significance of each parameter as an
individual predictor of Q (SPSS 2007). Maximum rate of
excavation can then be suggested for the rock mass rating
system based on the correlation of the relevant parameter
with Q in PCC.
By using the suggested maximum rate, an excavation
assessment chart for surface excavation in sedimentary
rock was proposed. The ranges of rating of parameters in
the chart are proposed based on the field study and labo-
ratory test results. Table 5 shows the proposed excavation
assessment chart for sedimentary rock, namely Excavation
Index of Sedimentary Rock (EISR). The summation of
rates is introduced as the EISR index.
Ease of excavatability assessment studies
In this section, the EISR of each respective studied sites
was calculated. The calculated EISR values were compared
with the production rate obtained through practical exca-
vation. In order to examine the correlation between sug-
gested EISR and practical production rate Q, Fig. 4 was
plotted. Observation of Fig. 4 shows that there is a
remarkable correlation between the EISR values and
Q. Hence, it was evident from this figure that Q can be
accurately estimated by the proposed EISR rating system.
Based on the concentration of data points in Fig. 4, five
classes of excavatability were proposed based on the
excavation rate. The borderlines of each excavatability
class are illustrated. The excavatability condition in class i
to iv are respectively very easy, easy, moderate, difficult,
and blasting or ripping is required. It is worth noting that
class v represents the class with EISR values less than or
equal to 0. Table 6 shows the proposed chart of exca-
vatability of sedimentary rock.

Table 5 Proposed Excavation

Parameter Range of values
Index of Sedimentary Rock
(EISR) rating system Point load strength, Is50 (MPa) [2.0 0.4–2.0 0.05–0.40 \0.05
Rating (R1) 0 2 5 8
Rebound hammer value, R [30 30–15 15–5 \5
Rating (R2) 0 1 2 3
Uniaxial compressive strength, UCS (MPa) [50 50–15 [15 0
Rating (R3) 0 2.0 4.5 7
Density, c (kN/m3) [25 25–24.5 24.5–24 \24
Rating (R4) 0 1.5 2.5 4
Indirect tensile strength, ITS (MPa) [2.0 2.0–1.0 [1.0 0
Rating (R5) 0 2 5 8
Joint spacing, Js (m) [0.4 0.4–0.2 0.2–0.1 \0.1
Rating (R6) 0 2.5 4.5 6
Joint trace length, JL (m) [3.5 3.5–2.5 2.5–1.5 \1.5
Rating (R7) 0 1.5 3 5
Joint direction, Jd (°) 0–20 20–45 45–70 70–90
Rating (R7) 0 1 1.5 2
Iron pan existence Present Absent
Rating (R8) 0 1
Mc Dry Damp Wet
Rating (R9) 0 2 4
EISR = R1 ? R2 ? R3 ? R4 ? R5 ? R6 ? R7 ? R8 ? R9

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An excavatability classification system for surface excavation in sedimentary rocks 249

Verification of proposed classification system
Practical excavation was performed in another sedimentary
rock site in order to verify the applicability of the proposed
geomechanical model for surface excavation. This site,
namely the Medini site, is also located in the Iskandar
region, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Figure 5 shows the over-
view of rock mass outcrop at the Medini Site. It should be
noted that seven excavatable zones were selected for
practical excavation. Each respective zone with its identi-
fication are shown in Fig. 5.
In the previous section, the required parameters to be
used in calculating EISR were presented. These parameters
were measured in each respective zone to estimate the
EISR value and compared with the production rate
obtained through practical excavation. Similar to the pre-
vious studied sites, the joint characteristics, relative ground
50
45 (i) Very easy
40
35 (ii) Easy
30
EISR
condition, and material properties were obtained by con-
ducting a discontinuity survey, a field study, and laboratory
sampling tests. The results are listed in Table 7.
By using the EISR rating system, the excavatability
class was predicted in each zone. Table 8 shows the pre-
dicted excavatability class for the Medini Site.
Practical excavation was performed in the correspond-
ing zones to obtain the Q. Similar to previous sites, the
machine used is the Komatsu PC 300-6 hydraulic exca-
vator. The mean production rate in each zone was calcu-
lated based on the average of three consecutive excavations
within 2 min. The results are presented in Table 9.
By comparing the predicted Q using EISR with the
actual Q obtained from practical excavation, it was found
that the proposed EISR rating system is applicable and,
thus, verified. Table 9 also reveals that the actual Q from
practical excavation is perfectly fitted within the predicted
range of Q by the proposed model.
Summary and conclusions
Practical excavation was performed in SiLC 1, Legoland,

25 (iii) Moderate and SiLC 2 to obtain the actual Q for statistical analysis.
20 EISR = 18.382Q + 5.2901
R² = 0.8899
All parameters, including field and laboratory tests were
15 analysed using statistical software SPSS to obtain the
10
best combination of these parameters in order to predict
5
(iv) Difficult Q. It was found that the effective parameters are Is50, R,
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 UCS, c, ITS, Js, JL, Jd, the existence of iron pan, and
Q (m3/kwh) moisture content, whereas some other parameters such as
existence of bedding, Id2 and Jn can be excluded from
Fig. 4 Excavatability classes of EISR versus Q
the model without significantly influencing the efficiency
of the model. Based on the statistical results, a chart of
Table 6 Proposed excavatability classification in sedimentary rock
Excavation Index of Sedimentary Rock (EISR) was
Class EISR Q (m3/kWh) Excavatability condition proposed.
i [40 [1.8 Very easy
The EISR value for each lithological zone of the studied
sites was calculated and plotted versus their respective
ii 30–40 1.25–1.8 Easy
actual Q obtained from practical excavation. Subsequently,
iii 20–30 0.8–1.25 Moderate
the excavatability classes were proposed, which consist of
iv 0–20 \0.8 Difficult
five classes from very easily excavated to blasting or rip-
v \0 0 Blasting/ripping
ping that is required. The proposed EISR index ranges from

Fig. 5 Overview and excavated

zones in the Medini Site

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250 M. Liang et al.

Table 7 Parameters and respective rates based on the EISR rating system in the Medini Site
Zone Is50 (MPa) R UCS (MPa) c (kN/m3) ITS (MPa) Js (m) JL (m) Jd (°) Ip Mc EISR

M1 4.96 (0) [30 (0) 45.16 (2) 23.5 (4) 1.75 (2) 0.175 (4.5) 1.73 (3) 45–70 (1.5) No (1) Dry (0) 18
M2 0.59 (2) 18 (1) 8.9 (4.5) 23.8 (2.5) 0.4 (5) 0.67 (0) 3.75 (0) 20–45 (1) No (1) Dry (0) 17
M3 1.45 (2) 15 (2) 12.3 (4.5) 24.7 (1.5) 0 (0) 0.13 (4.5) 2.8 (1.5) 45–70 (1.5) Yes (0) Wet (4) 21.5
M4 0.2 (5) 0 (3) 0 (7) 25.1 (0) 0 (8) 0.05 (6) 0.8 (5) 45–70 (1.5) Yes (0) Damp (2) 37.5
M5 0.4 (2) 16 (1) 0 (7) 24.9 (1.5) 0 (8) 0.34 (2.5) 1.78 (3) 20–45 (1) No (1) Damp (2) 29
M6 0.01 (8) 0 (3) 0 (7) 24.1 (2.5) 0 (8) 0.05 (6) 0.8 (5) 45–70 (1.5) Yes (0) Wet (4) 45
M7 0.04 (8) 0 (3) 0 (7) 25.1 (0) 0 (8) 0.05 (6) 0.95 (5) 45–70 (1.5) Yes (0) Wet (4) 42.5
The value in the bracket indicate the calculated rate based on EISR

Table 8 Predicted
Zone EISR Class Predicted Q (m3/kWh) Excavatability condition
excavatability class for the
Medini Site M1 18 iv \0.8 Difficult
M2 17 iv \0.8 Difficult
M3 21.5 iii 0.8–1.25 Moderate
M4 37.5 ii 1.25–1.8 Easy
M5 29 ii 1.25–1.8 Easy
M6 45 i [1.8 Very easy
M7 42.5 i [1.8 Very easy

Table 9 The results of

Zone Number of bucket Q (m3/kWh) Mean Q (m3/kWh) Predicted Q (m3/kWh)
practical excavation in Medini
1 2 3 1 2 3

M1 3 2 2 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.58 \0.8

M2 2 2 2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.50 \0.8
M3 5 6 5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.17 0.8–1.25
M4 6 5 6 1.42 1.18 1.42 1.34 1.25–1.8
M5 5 6 6 1.25 1.5 1.5 1.42 1.25–1.8
M6 8 7 7 2.0 1.75 1.75 1.83 [1.8
M7 7 8 7 2.0 1.75 1.75 1.83 [1.8

0 to 50, where 0 represents the boundary of no excavation
works can be performed and 50 represents very easy
excavation works are expected.
Verification of the proposed classification system was
made by performing practical excavation in another site,
namely the Medini Site. The parameters required to cal-
culate EISR were also recorded. Comparison between the
predicted Q and actual Q demonstrated the applicability
and validity of the proposed model.
References
Abdullatif OM, Cruden DM (1983) The relationship between rock
mass quality and ease of excavation. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol
28(1):183–187
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