4 Engineering Mechanics

4.1 STATICS OF PARTICLE: FORCES ON A PLANE

A force can be depicted by its magnitude, direction, and point
of application. A force system or a system of forces refers to
several forces acting on a body.

4.1.1 TYPES OF SYSTEM OF FORCES

4.1.1.1 Coplanar Force System
Forces which lie on a single plane are called coplanar forces
or coplanar force system which is shown in Figure 4.1.

4.1.1.2 Concurrent Force System FIGURE 4.2 Concurrent force system.

When all the forces pass through a common point, the force
system is known as concurrent force system and forces are
known as concurrent forces which are shown in Figure 4.2.
4.1.1.3 Collinear Force System
If the forces are acting in a single straight line as shown in
Figure 4.3, this force system is known as collinear forces.
4.1.1.4 Parallel Force System
Figure 4.4 shows the parallel forces which are forces whose
lines of action are parallel to each other. Parallel forces are of
two types:
a. Like parallel forces
These are forces which are parallel to each other
with their lines of action in the same direction.
In Figure 4.4, F2, F3, and F4 are like parallel forces.
b. Unlike parallel forces
These are forces which are parallel to each other
with their lines of action in different directions.
In Figure 4.4, F1 and F2 are unlike parallel forces.

4.1.2 RESULTANT OF FORCES

A single force which can be substituted for a set of forces in
FIGURE 4.1 Coplanar force system. a force system and cause the same external effect is known

FIGURE 4.3 (a–d) Collinear force system.

41
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FIGURE 4.4 Parallel force system.
as the resultant of coplanar forces. Resultant of two forces is
shown in Figure 4.5. The process of determining the resultant
force is called the composition of forces. The various methods
for nding out the resultant forces are parallelogram law,
triangle law, and polygon law of forces.
4.1.2.1 Parallelogram Law of Forces
If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude
and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
then their resultant can be represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal passing through the point. Consider
two forces P and Q acting at a point O and inclined at an angle
θ as shown in Figure 4.6. The forces P and Q can be repre-
sented in magnitude and direction by the sides OA and OB of
a parallelogram OACB as shown in Figure 4.6. The resultant
of the forces P and Q is the diagonal OC of the parallelogram
represented as R. The magnitude of the resultant is
R= P 2 + Q 2 + 2 PQ cos (4.1a)
The direction of the resultant is
 Qsin  Polygon law of forces is an extension of triangle law of forces and
= tan −1   (4.1b)
 P + Q cos 
FIGURE 4.5 Resultant of two forces.
Practical Civil Engineering
FIGURE 4.6 Parallelogram law of forces.
If P and Q are perpendicular, θ = 90°. Then,
R= P2 + Q2 (4.2a)
Q
= tan −1      (4.2b)
 P
4.1.2.2 Triangle Law of Forces
The law states that if two forces acting at a point are repre-
sented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides
of a triangle taken in order, then the resultant of the forces in
magnitude and direction is given by the closing side of the
triangle taken in the reverse order.
In Figure 4.7a, forces F1 and F2 act at an angle θ.
In Figure 4.7b, OA and AB represent the forces F1 and F2 in
magnitude and direction. The closing side OB of the triangle
taken in the reverse order represents the resultant R of the
forces P and Q. The magnitude and the direction of R can be
found by using sine and cosine laws of triangles.
4.1.2.3 Polygon Law of Forces
is used to determine the resultant of more than two concurrent
forces. It states that if a number of forces acting simultaneously at
a point in a plane are represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides of a polygon taken in order, then the resultant of all these
forces may be represented in magnitude and direction by the clos-
ing side of the polygon taken in opposite order.
Consider the forces F1, F2, F3, and F4 are acting at a point
as shown in Figure 4.8a. Starting from the point O, OA rep-
resents the force F1 in magnitude (using suitable scales) and
direction. From the tip A, AB is drawn representing the force
F2. Similarly, BC represents the force F3, and CD represents
force F4. The starting point O is joined to the end point D giv-
ing OD in opposite order. OD represents the resultant force R
in magnitude and direction as shown in Figure 4.8b.
R = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 (4.3)
Engineering Mechanics 43

FIGURE 4.7 (a and b) Triangle law of forces.

FIGURE 4.8 (a and b) Polygon law of forces.

4.1.2.4 Resultant of Coplanar

Concurrent Force Systems
Resultant of a number of coplanar concurrent forces is given by

R= ∑ Fx2 + ∑ Fy2 (4.4)

where ∑F x and ∑F y are the sum of components of all the FIGURE 4.9 Lami’s theorem.

forces acting along two mutually perpendicular X and Y directions.

4.1.3 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES
A number of forces acting on a particle are said to be in equi-
librium when their resultant force is zero. If the resultant force
4.1.3.2 Conditions for the Equilibrium of
Coplanar Concurrent Force Systems
Resultant of a number of coplanar concurrent forces is given by
Equation 4.4. For the resultant force to be zero, both ∑ F and ∑ F
x y

is not equal to zero, then the particle can be brought to rest
by applying a force equal and opposite to the resultant force.
Such a force is called equilibrant.
4.1.3.1 Lami’s Theorem
Lami’s theorem is an equation which relates the magnitudes
of three coplanar, concurrent, and noncollinear forces, which
keeps an object in static equilibrium, with the angles directly
opposite to the corresponding forces. According to the theorem,
A B C A force produces a twisting effect about an axis perpendicular to the
= = (4.5)
sin sin sin
where A, B, and C are the magnitudes of three copla-
nar, concurrent, and noncollinear forces, which keep the
object in static equilibrium. α, β, and γ are the angles
directly opposite to the forces A, B, and C, respectively,
as shown in Figure 4.9.
must be zero. Therefore, the equations of equilibrium are
∑F = 0x (4.6a)
∑F = 0y (4.6b)
4.2 MOMENT OF A FORCE
plane which contains the line of action of the force. The measure of
this capacity of the force is called as moment. The moment is cal-
culated as the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
from the axis to the line of action of the force. The moment center
is de ned as the intersection of the plane and the axis. The moment
arm is the perpendicular distance from the moment center to the
line of action of the force. Conventionally, clockwise moments are
assumed to be positive and vice versa.
44 Practical Civil Engineering

4.3 COUPLE
A couple (also called as force couple or pure moment) is a system
of forces that has no resultant force but de nitely has a resultant
moment. The resultant moment of a couple is called a torque.
A couple consists of two equal forces that are parallel to each
other and acting in opposite direction. Referring Figure 4.12, the
magnitude of the couple can be computed using Equation 4.9.
If F is the magnitude of two forces and d is the moment arm or
the perpendicular distance between the forces,

FIGURE 4.10 Moment of a force. Magnitude of couple = Fd (4.9)

Figure 4.10 shows the details of the moment of a force. If O

is the moment center and d is the moment arm, the moment M 4.4 STATICS OF PARTICLE: NONCOPLANAR
of force F about point O will be equal to the product of F and CONCURRENT FORCES IN SPACE
d. The moment acts clockwise and hence the gure shows a Some forces do not lie in the same plane; however, their line
positive moment. of action may sometimes pass-through a single point. Such
forces are called noncoplanar concurrent forces.
M = Fd (4.7) The magnitude of a force F in space as shown in
Figure 4.13 is
4.2.1 VARIGNON’S THEOREM
F= Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2 (4.10)
It was the French mathematician Pierre Varignon (1654–1722)
who formulated the Varignon’s Theorem. The theorem was
put forth in 1687 in his book Projet d’ unè nouvelle mècha- Components of a force in space as shown in Figure 4.14 are
nique. Varignon’s theorem states that the moment of a resul-
tant of two concurrent forces about any point is equal to the Fx = F cos x (4.11a)
algebraic sum of the moments of its components about the
same point. The principle of moments states that the moment Fy = F cos y (4.11b)
of the resultant of a number of forces about any point is equal
to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces of the
Fz = F cos z (4.11c)
system about the same point.
From Figure 4.11,

R × r = F1 × r1 + F2 × r2 (4.8)
where F1, F2 are the component forces, R is the resultant force,
and r, r1, r 2 are perpendicular distances to the line of action of
forces R, F1, and F2, respectively.

FIGURE 4.12 Couple.

FIGURE 4.11 Varignon’s theorem. FIGURE 4.13 Noncoplanar concurrent forces system.
Engineering Mechanics 45

Also, the sum of moments produced due to the forces should

be equal to zero.

∑ Mx = 0 (4.16a)

∑ My = 0 (4.16b)

∑ Mz = 0 (4.16c)

4.5 STATICS OF RIGID BODY:

NONCONCURRENT, COPLANAR
FORCES ON A PLANE RIGID BODY
The force system in which lines of action of individual forces
FIGURE 4.14 Components of a force in space. lie in the same plane but act at different points of applications
as shown in Figure 4.15 are called as coplanar nonconcurrent
force system.
Their direction cosines are

Fx 4.5.1 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR

cos = (4.12a)
x
F NONCONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEMS
A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium when the net effect
F of external forces acting on it is zero. The necessary and suf-
cos y = y (4.12b) cient conditions for the equilibrium of a rigid body can be
F
expressed analytically as

Fz ∑ Fx = 0 (4.17a)
cos z = (4.12c)
F
∑ Fy = 0 (4.17b)
4.4.1 RESULTANT OF CONCURRENT
FORCE SYSTEMS IN SPACE ∑M = 0 (4.17c)

Components of the resultant are

4.5.2 FREE BODY DIAGRAM
The free body diagram is a graphical illustration of an object or
Rx = ∑ Fx (4.13a)
a body along with all the external forces acting on it. A sketch
showing the physical situation of a system consisting of several
Ry = ∑ Fy (4.13b) bodies is called a space diagram. For a system consisting of
several bodies to be in equilibrium, each body of the system
Rz = ∑ Fz (4.13c) considered separately must be in equilibrium. Figure  4.16a
shows a case of mowing a lawn using a lawnmower. Figure 4.16b
Magnitude of the resultant is shows its free body diagram representing the forces acting on
the lawnmower.

R= Rx2 + Ry2 + Rz2 (4.14)

4.4.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF CONCURRENT SPACE FORCES

For equilibrium of concurrent space forces, the resultant of all
the forces must be equal to zero.

∑ Fx = 0 (4.15a)

∑ Fy = 0 (4.15b)

∑ Fz = 0 (4.15c) FIGURE 4.15 Coplanar nonconcurrent forces system.

46 Practical Civil Engineering

FIGURE 4.16 Free body diagram.

4.5.3 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY
It states that the conditions of equilibrium or conditions of
motion of a rigid body will remain unchanged if force acting at
a given point of the rigid body is replaced by a force of the same
magnitude and same direction, but acting at a different point,
provided that the two forces have the same line of action.
Consider a rigid body under the action of a force F applied
at A and acting along AB as shown in Figure 4.17. Two equal
and opposite forces applied at B will not change the condition
of the rigid body. Now the removal of force at A and the force
at B which is opposite to the force at A will not change the
condition of the rigid body.
4.5.4 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF FORCES
This principle states that the combined effect of force system
acting on a particle or a rigid body is the sum of the effects of
individual forces.
shown in Figure 4.18. They are in the form of bearing pads
commonly placed at one end of long bridge slabs.
4.6.2 HINGED SUPPORTS
Some supports are provided with hinges at the surface of their
rest. They are capable of resisting forces acting in any direc-
tion of the plane. These supports are called as hinged support
and such a support is shown in Figure 4.19. However, they do
not provide resistance to rotation. They are the supports used
to provide rotation to the doors.
4.6.3 FIXED SUPPORTS
Fixed supports are also known as rigid supports as they can
restrain both rotation and translation. A xed support as shown
in Figure 4.20 can resist vertical and horizontal forces as well as

4.6 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

4.6.1 ROLLER SUPPORTS
Some supports are provided with rollers on the surface where
they rest. They are free to rotate as well as displace along the
surface. These supports are called as roller supports and are

FIGURE 4.18 Roller support.

FIGURE 4.17 (a–d) Principle of transmissibility. FIGURE 4.19 Hinged support.