MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

CIE 1051
LECTURE 0
 Mechanics of Solids

PART- I PART- II
Mechanics of Rigid Bodies Mechanics of Deformable
Bodies
 COURSE CONTENT IN BRIEF

PART I Mechanics of Rigid Bodies

1. Resultant of concurrent and non-concurrent coplanar forces

2. Equilibrium of concurrent and non-concurrent coplanar forces

3. Centroid of plane areas

4. Moment of Inertia of plane areas

PART II Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

6. Simple stresses and strains

7. Statically indeterminate problems and thermal stresses

8. Stresses due to fluid pressure in thin cylinders

9. Concepts of SFD and BMD

 REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Engineering Mechanics - Meriam & Craige, John Wiley & Sons.
2. Engineering Mechanics - Irwing Shames, Prentice Hall of India.
3. Mechanics for Engineers - Beer and Johnston, McGraw Hills Edition
4. Mechanics of Materials - E.P.Popov
5. Mechanics of Materials - E J Hearn
6. Strength of materials - Beer and Johnston
7. Strength of materials - F L Singer & Andrew Pytel
8. Strength of Materials - B.S. Basavarajaiah & P. Mahadevappa
9. Strength of Materials - S S Bhavikatti
LECTURE 1
 Concept of Rigid body
 Force and its characteristics
 Principle of transmissibility
 Classification of Force System
 Resultant of Coplanar concurrent forces
 Composition of forces
 Resolution of a force
 Rectangular Components of a force
 Sign convention
 INTRODUCTION TO RIGID BODY
MECHANICS
Rigid Body
 A body is said to be rigid if it does not get deformed under the action of
external load.
 It is defined as a definite amount of matter, the parts of which are fixed in
position relative to one another.
 Actually solid bodies are never rigid; they deform under the action of
applied forces. In those cases where this deformation is negligible
compared to the size of the body, the body may be considered to be rigid.
 Force
 It is defined as the action of one body on another. (OR) It is that agent
which causes or tends to cause changes or tends to change the state of rest or
motion of a mass.
 Characteristics of a force:
1. Magnitude
2. Direction P= 100 kN
3. Point of application and 30˚ A
4. Line of action

Example: B
 Principle of Transmissibility

A B
P

 The state of rest or motion of the block will be the same if a force of
magnitude P is applied as a push at A or as a pull at B.
OR
 The state of rest or of uniform motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a force
acting on the body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and
direction but acting anywhere on the body along the line of action of the
replaced force.
 Classification of Force System

System of forces

Non coplanar
Collinear forces Coplanar forces
forces

Concurrent Non concurrent Concurrent Non concurrent

forces forces forces forces

Like parallel Unlike parallel Like parallel Unlike parallel

forces forces forces forces
 RESULTANT OF COPLANAR
CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM
F3 F2

F1 =
θ
A A
F4

It is defined as that single force which can replace a set of forces, in a

force system, and cause the same external effect.
 Composition of forces: It is the process of obtaining the resultant of a
given force system.

 Component of a force : In simple terms, it is the effect of a force in a

certain direction.

 Resolution of a force: The process of obtaining the components of a

force.
 Rectangular Components of a force
F
F F
Fy = Fy
θx θx θx
Fx Fx

 The components that are mutually perpendicular are called ‘Rectangular

Components’.

 Consider a force F making an angle θx with x-axis.

Resolved part of the force F along x-axis is given by Fx = F cos θx
Resolved part of the force F along y-axis is given by Fy = F sin θx
 Sign convention

y +ve
x

x
+ve
LECTURE 2
 Resultant of Coplanar non-concurrent force systems
 Moment of a force
 Varignon’s theorem
 Couple
 Moment of a couple
 Resolution of a force into a force and couple
 Properties of a couple
 RESULTANT OF COPLANAR NON-
CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM

F2
F1 F2 F1

F5 F3
F3 F4

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

 Parallel Force System – Lines of action of individual forces are parallel

to each other.
 Non-Parallel Force System – Lines of action of the forces are not
parallel to each other.
 Moment
 Moment of a force about an axis:
• Moment Axis: the axis about which rotational
tendency is determined.
• Moment Center: This is the position of axis on co-
planar system.
• Moment Arm: Perpendicular distance from the line
of action of the force to moment center.
 Magnitude of moment:
MA = F×d
= Rotation effect because of the force F, about the
point A (about an axis 0-0)

Unit – kN-m, N-mm etc.

 Sense of a Moment
‘Right Hand Thumb’ rule:

‘If the fingers of the right hand are curled in the

direction of rotational tendency of the body, the
extended thumb represents the sense of moment
vector’.

For the purpose of additions, the moment direction

may be considered by using a suitable sign convention M
such as +ve for counterclockwise and –ve for M
clockwise rotations or vice-versa.
 Varignon’s Theorem (Principle of moments)
Proof (by Scalar Formulation):

Ry Q R
Qy D
C
γ
P
q r
Py β B
p
α

X
A O
Let ‘R’ be the given force. ‘P’ & ‘Q’ are component forces of ‘R’.‘O’ is the
moment center. p, r and q are moment arms from ‘O’ of P, R and Q
respectively.α, β and γ are the inclinations of ‘P’, ‘R’ and ‘Q’ respectively
w.r.to X – axis.
We have,
Ry = Py + Qy
R Sinβ = P Sinα + Q Sin γ ----(1)
From ∆le AOB, p/AO = Sin α
From ∆le AOC, r/AO = Sin β
From ∆le AOD, q/AO = Sin γ
From (1),
R ×(r/AO) = P ×(p/AO) + Q ×(q/AO)
i.e., R × r = P × p + Q × q
Moment of resultant R about O = algebraic sum of moments of component
forces P & Q about same moment center ‘O’.
 Couple
Two parallel, non collinear (separated by certain distance) forces that are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction form ‘couple’.

d M=Fxd
=

Couple does not produce any translation but produces only rotation.
 Moment of a Couple
F
d
F
a

 Consider two equal and opposite forces separated by a distance ‘d’. Let ‘O’
be the moment center at a distance ‘a’ from one of the forces.
 The sum of moments of two forces about the point ‘O’ is,
∑ Mo = F × ( a + d) – F × a = F× d

Thus, the moment of the couple about ‘O’ is independent of the location as it
is independent of ‘a’.
 Properties of a Couple
 The algebraic sum of the components of the two forces is zero. i.e. the
resultant force of a couple is zero
 The moment of a couple is constant for any point chosen in the plane of the
couple
 A couple can be balanced by an equal and opposite couple in the same
plane.
 Two or more couples can be reduced to a single couple of moment equal to
the algebraic sum of the moments of the given couples
 The moment of a couple is independent of the choice of the axis of
moments (moment centre). The moment of a couple is the same with
respect to any axis perpendicular to the plane of the couple.
 Properties of a Couple cont…
 The effect of a couple is unchanged if the couple is rotated through any
angle.
 Since the only effect of a couple is a moment and this moment is the same
about any point, the effect of a couple is unchanged if :
The couple is rotated though any angle.
The couple is shifted to any other position.
The couple is replaced by another pair of forces whose rotational effect
is the same
Resolution of a force into a force-couple system
To replace the force F acting at the point A to the point B
F F F

B A B A

d
F

F F F

B A B
= A
M=Fxd
F
LECTURE 3
 Application Problems
1 . Obtain the resultant of the concurrent coplanar forces acting as
shown in figure

50 kN
100 kN
2
3

1
2 60°

75 kN
25 kN
Solution:
100 cos θx
50 sin θx = 50 sin 26.3 = 100 cos 33.7
100kN
50kN

100 sin θx
º = 100 sin 33.7
50 cos θx 120
= 50 cos 26.3 2
3 º
30
25 cos θx 1
= 25 cos 63.43 75 cos θx
2 = 75 cos 30

25kN 25 sin θx 75kN

= 25 sin 63.43 75 sin θx
= 75 sin 30
 50 sin 26.3 100 cos 33.7
Solution: 100kN
50kN

Force X-comp. Y-comp 120º 100 sin 33.7

50 cos 26.3 2
3
100 -100 cos33.7 -100 sin33.7 30
25 cos 63.43 2 1 75 cos 30
50 -50 cos26.3 +50 sin26.3 25kN 75kN
25 -25cos 63.43 -25 sin63.43 25 sin 63.43 75 sin 30

75 +75 cos30 -75 sin30

------- --------------- ----------------
R ΣFx = ΣFy =
- 74.26 kN -93.17 kN
∑Fx = -50 Cos 26.31- 100 Cos33.69 – 25 Cos 63.43 + 75 Cos 30

= -74.26kN = 74.26kN

∑FY = 50sin26.31- 100sin 33.69 – 75sin30 – 25sin63.43

= -93.17kN = 93.17kN

Contd..
Answers:
∑Fx
θ
∑Fy
R

R = √(∑Fx) 2 + (∑Fy) 2 = 119.14 kN

Θ = tan-1(∑Fy / ∑Fx ) = 51.44o
2. A system of concurrent coplanar forces has four forces of which only
three are shown in figure. If the resultant is a force R = 100N acting as
indicated, obtain the unknown fourth force.

75N
25N
60°
70°

40° 45°

50N
R=100N
 Assume the fourth force (F4) in the first quadrant, at an angle α, as shown.
The 25 N force makes an angle of 30o w.r.t. horizontal
R is the resultant of Four forces including F4

75 sin70
F4 sin α
75N F4
25 sin30

25N 75 cos70 α
60°
25 cos30 F4 cos α
30° 70° α
40° 45°
R cos40
50N
R sin40 50 cos45
R=100N
 75 sin70 Force X-comp. Y-comp
25N 25 sin30 75N
F4 +F4 cosα +F4 sinα
75 cos70

25 cos30
60°
50 - 50 cos45 +50 sin45
70°
30°
40° 45° 25 - 25 cos30 +25 sin30
R cos40

50 cos45 50N
75 +75 cos70 +75 sin70
R sin40
R=100N ------- --------------- ----------------
R ΣFx = - R cos40 ΣFy = -R sin40
= -100 cos40N = - 100 sin40N

+ve ΣFx = -Rcos40

ΣFx = -Rcos40 = F4cosα + 75cos70 – 50cos45 – 25sin60
F4cosα = - 45.25N
 +ve ΣFy = -Rsin40

ΣFy = -Rsin40 = F4sinα + 75sin70+25cos60+50sin45

∴ F4sinα = -182.61N ;

Answers: F4cosα = 45.25N

tan α = (F4sinα /F4cosα)
α = 76.08º F4sinα =
α= 76.08º 182.61N
& F4 =188.13N

F4=188.13N
3. A system of concurrent coplanar forces has five forces of which only four
forces are shown in the Fig. If the resultant is a force R = 100N acting as
indicated, obtain the unknown fifth force.
Ans:
75 N
F4cosα = 114.265N
30° 60 N F4sinα =
25N 3
α= 63.073º 224.97N
20°
2
F4= 252.33N
40° 60°

50N
R= 100N
LECTURE 4
3. A 50 N force is applied to the corner of a plate as Shown in the fig.
Determine an equivalent force-couple system at A.

B
30 mm
A
50 mm

100 mm 30º
50 N
Force – Couple System at A: B
Fx = 50 ×sin 30= 25 N. 30 mm
A
Fy = 50 × cos 30= 43.3 N 50 mm 50 sin 30
50 N
60º

100 mm 30º
50N
50 cos 30
a) Force – Couple System at A: B
30 mm
Fx = 50 ×sin 30 = 25 N. A
Fy = 50 × cos 30 = 43.3 N 50 mm Fx=50 sin 30
These forces can be moved to
A by adding the couple. 30º
100 mm
Moment of the couple about A 50N

+ ∑MA= Fx×50-Fy×100 Fy=50 cos 30

= 25×50 - 43.3×100
Fx=50 sin 30
= -3080 N-mm. A
50 mm MA=3080N-mm
= 3080 N-mm
Fy=50 cos 30

100 mm
4. Find the resultant and its position w.r.to ‘O’ of the non-concurrent system of
forces shown in the figure.

F1=2500N
F5=2000N F2=500N

1 Ө4 Ө2

1 1m
Ө5 F3=1000N

O
1m
F4=1500N
A) To find the resultant –

Ө2 = tan-1(1/2) = 26.56°
Ө4 = tan-1(3/2) = 56.31°
Ө5 = tan-1(1/1) = 45°
+ ΣFx = Rx = F2 cosӨ2 +F3
-F4 cosӨ4-F5 cos Ө5
= 500 × cos26.56 + 1000 –
1500 × cos56.31-2000 × cos45
= -799.03N = 799.03N←
+↑ΣFy = Ry= F1+F2 sin Ө2-F4 sin Ө4+F5 sin Ө5
= 2500+500 sin26.56-1500 sin56.31+2000 sin45
=2889.70N ↑ 49
 Ry
∴ Resultant R = R

 Ry 
= 2998.14N
ӨR = tan-1  R  = tan-1(2889.7/799.03) = 74.54° ӨR
 x
Rx
B) Position of Resultant w.r.to ‘O’:
By Varignon’s theorem, Moment of the resultant about ‘O’
= Algebraic sum of the moments of its components
about ‘O’.
+ Mo =R×d = +2500×2 + 500×sin26.56×5 – 500×
cos26.56×3 - 1000×1- 1500× cos56.31×0
–1500×sin56.3×1+2000× cos45×1-2000×sin45×0
= 2998.14 × d
d = 1.43 m from O.
TUTORIAL 1

HOME
1. Locate the resultant with respect to point A.

150 N

600mm

100 N 600mm

200 N
45˚
60˚
A
600mm 600mm

200 N
53
2. For the configuration shown in the figure, resultant of the force system
acting on the frame passes through the point B and E as shown in the figure.
Find the values of F and M.
200N
A
200mm

B
F 175N
200mm
M 45˚
F 30˚
C E
200mm
200mm 200mm 200mm
300N
G
30˚
150N
55
3. Determine the resultant of the parallel coplanar force system shown in fig.
Locate the resultant with respect to A .

600 N
400N
30
30
10 A
40
2000 N 1K N

600 mm
57
4. An equilateral triangle of sides 200mm is acted upon by 4 forces as shown
in the figure. Determine magnitude and direction of the resultant and its
position from point ‘D’.
50kN

60kN

30º 60º 30kN

D
200mm

80kN
HOME
Resultant & its inclination:
50 sin 60
50kN
Resolving forces
+ ΣFx = Rx = +30 + 60 cos30º – 50 cos60º
50 cos 60 60 sin30
60kN
= +56.96kN.
+ ΣFy = Ry = -80 + 60 sin30º + 50 sin60º 60 cos30

= -6.69kN. 30º 60º 30kN

R=
200mm
Inclination w.r.to horizontal = θR
80kN
= tan-1(Ry/Rx)
= tan-1(6.69/56.96) = 6.7º
b) Position w.r.to D:
Moment of the component forces about D:
+ MD = - 60 × 100 + 80 × 100 = 2000kNmm.
=R× d
where ‘d’ = perpendicular distance from point D to the line
of action of R.
or, 2000= Rxd.
∴ d =2000/57.35 = 34.87mm
5. Determine the resultant of the coplanar force system shown in fig. Locate
the resultant with respect to A

150N

100mm
150 N-mm F
A E
100mm 200mm
50mm 50 mm 50 mm

200N G 40˚
100N
TUTORIAL (Additional)
1.
2. Locate the resultant of coplanar non-concurrent force system shown in figure with
respect to ‘A’.

64
3. Locate the resultant of coplanar non-concurrent force system shown in figure with respect
to ‘A’.

65
4.

66
 EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR
CONCURRENT AND NON
CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEMS
LECTURE 5
 Equilibrium of a particle

 Conditions for Equilibrium

 Space Diagram & Free Body Diagram (FBD)

 Application problems
 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS

Equilibrium of a particle :
If the net effect of the given forces is zero, the particle is said to be in
equilibrium.
30kN 30kN

A body is said to be in equilibrium when it does not have any translatory or

rotatory motion in any direction.
50kN

20kN O 20kN
Equilibrium of concurrent coplanar force system :
50kN
Equilibrium conditions:

The algebraic sum of the components of the forces along each of three
mutually perpendicular axes is zero.

In case of coplanar forces, ΣFX = 0; ΣFY = 0

Triangle Law: F2
If three forces are in equilibrium, then, they
form a closed triangle when represented in a F1
F3
Tip to Tail arrangement. F1

Polygonal Law:
If more than three forces are in equilibrium,
then, they form a closed polygon when
represented in a Tip to Tail arrangement
Lami’s theorem: F3 α F2
If a system of three “concurrent” forces is in
equilibrium, then, each force of the system is
proportional to sine of the angle between the other ᵝ ᵞ
two forces (and constant of proportionality is the
same for all the forces).
F1

F1 F2 F3
Note: While using Lami’s theorem, all the three
forces should be either directed away or all
= =
directed towards the point of concurrence. Sinα Sinβ Sinγ
 Equilibrium of Non-concurrent Coplanar
force system
When a body is in equilibrium, it has neither translatory nor rotatory motion
in any direction.
Thus the resultant force R and the resultant couple M are both zero, and we
have the equilibrium equations for two dimensional force system as

 Fx = 0;  Fy = 0 & M = 0

These requirements are both necessary and sufficient conditions for

equilibrium.
 Space and Free body diagrams
Space diagram :
The sketch showing the physical conditions Cable
2 kN
of the problem, like, the nature of supports
2m
provided; size, shape and location of ө 45˚
various bodies; forces applied on bodies,
etc.,
Sphere
1 kN Size of the cube Wall
30˚ = 2mX1mx1m
Wt. of the sphere = 1 kN
2 kN
Floor Radius of the sphere = 0.5 m

Figure 1 Figure 2
Free body diagram :
An isolated view of a body which shows only
2 kN
the external forces acting on the body 2m
2 kN ө T
1 kN
45˚

30˚
RW Sphere

RF
1 kN

Figure 1 Figure 2
Few Guidelines for Drawing FBD:

1. Tensile Force – vector directed away from the body

2. Compressive Force - vector directed towards the body
3. Reactions at smooth surfaces - normal to the surface and pointing towards
the body
4. Forces in Link rods/connecting rods – along the axis (towards or away
from the body)
5. Forces in Cables (Strings or Chords) - along the cable and directed away
from the body (tension)
 Application Problems
1. Determine the magnitude and nature of the forces in the bars AB and AC
shown in figure. Neglect size and weight of the pulley.

B
30
D A
60
C

40 kN
 B FBD of 40kN weight
30
T
D T T A
60 T
C T
40 kN
40 kN

If the pulley is frictionless then tension

in the rope on either side of it is same
 B FBD of joint A
30 FAB
D T T A
600
60 T T
C T 300

40 kN
FAC T
The AB and AC may be subjected to
either tension or compression
Hence initially assume one direction
Angle between FAB and F AC = 90deg.
 The joint A is under equilibrium and hence sum of all
forces acting at joint A is zero.
Taking FAC as X-axis and FAB as Y– axis

From +  FX = 0,
− FAC − WX − TX = 0
∴ FAC = −40Cos60 − 40Cos30 = −54.641kN
FAC is –ve , FAC is towards ‘A’, So it is Compressive.

From +  Fy = 0,
+ FAB + TY − WY = 0
∴ FAB = 40 Sin 60 − 40 Sin 30 = +14.641kN
FAB is +ve. FAB is away from ‘A’, So it is Tensile.
2. Determine the tension in the strings AB, BC, CD and inclination of the
segment CD to the vertical, in the system shown.

A D
30˚
θ
B

50˚
20 kN C

30 kN
 TBA Y +VE
TCB TCD
30
160 50
θ
+VE
X
50 TBC
20 kN
30 kN
Fig Q2.4a FBD of Joint ‘B’
Fig Q2.4b FBD of Joint ‘C’
Considering FBD of Joint ‘C’, We have,

From FX = 0, +
→
TCD Sin θ = 29.24 Sin 50 ------Eqn (1)

From FY = 0,+ ↑
TCD Cosθ = 30 − 29.24Cos50 ------Eqn (2)

Dividing Eqn(1) by (2), we get,

22.40 (NOTE: For this FBD, if
tan θ = we use Lami’s
11.20 Theorem,we have to
θ = 63.42o expand Sin(50+θ) and
solve for θ, which can
∴ TCD = 25.05kN take more time.)
LECTURE 6
 Types of Beam supports & Support reactions

 Types of Beams

 Types on Loads on beam

 Types of Beam Supports & Support
Reactions
Beam: A beam is a structural element which is capable of withstanding load
primarily by resisting bending.

Supports: A structure is subjected to external forces and transfers these

forces through the supports on to the foundation. Therefore the support
reactions and the external forces together keep the structure in equilibrium.

1. Roller Support
2. Hinged or pinned support
3. Fixed or built in support
1. Roller Support

A A
2. Hinged or pinned support

A Rh A
θ
Rv
R
3. Fixed or Built-in Support

A RAH
A
M

RAV
 Types of Beams
1. Simply supported beam
2. Cantilever beam
3. Overhanging beam
1. Simply Supported Beam

A B

span

A B

span
 2. Cantilever Beam

A B

span

RH A B

Rv
2. Overhanging Beam

A B

A B
Statically Determinate & Indeterminate
Beams
 Loads on Beam
1. Concentrated or Point load
2. Uniformly distributed load (UDL)
3. Uniformly varying load (UVL)
 1. Concentrated or Point Load
W kN

A B
L

2. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

W = (w x L) kN
w kN/m L/2

A B A B
L L
3. Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)

 Triangular Load  Trapezoidal Load

w2 kN/m
w kN/m w1 kN/m

L L

W1 = ½ × (w2-w1) × L
W=½×L×w W2 = w1× L
1/3 × L

1/3 ×L 2/3 × L
2/3 ×L
w1 L/2 L/2
w2

L L
LECTURE 7
 Application Problems Continued…
3. A beam AB of span 12m shown in the figure is hinged at A and is on
rollers at B. Determine the reactions at A and B for the loading shown.

20kN 25kN 30kN

30° 45°
A
B

4m 3m 3m 2m
Solution 25kN 30kN
FBD of Beam AB 20kN

30° 45°
HA
B
VA 3m 2m VB
4m 3m

 Fx = 0 HA – 25cos 30 – 30cos45 = 0
 Fy = 0 VA – 20 – 25 sin30 – 30sin45 +VB = 0
MA = 0 -20×4 - 25 sin30×7 - 30 sin 45×10+ VB ×12=0
Solution 25kN 30kN
FBD of Beam AB 20kN

A 30° 45°
HA B

VA 25 sin 30 30 sin 45 VB

4m 3m 3m 2m

MA = 0
0 = -20×4 - 25 sin30×7 - 30 sin 45×10+ VB ×12
Solution(contd.)

HA=42.86kN, VA=22.07kN, VB=31.64kN

HA

RA = (H 2
A + V A2 ) α

 VA  RA
α = tan 
−1
 VA
 HA 
RA= 48.21 kN

α = 27.25°
4. Find the support reactions for the beam loaded shown in figure.

600 N 400 N
0.6m
A 30˚ B
0.5m
45˚
500 N
200 N
1m 1m 1m 1.2m
5. An overhanging beam is on roller at A and is hinged at B. Determine the
reactions at A and B.

60 kN/m
20 kN 30 kN
10 kN/m
A B

2m 6m 2m 2m
6. Determine the support reactions at A and B.

20 kN/m

10 kN/m 10 kN/m

A B
1m 2m 3m
TUTORIAL 2
 Application Problems
6. Determine the reactions at A, C and D due to the forces acting on the
beam.
40 kN
20 kN
10 kN
B 45˚
A
0.5m
C
60˚ D 0.5m

1m 1m 10 kN
20 kN 1m
1m
1m
7. Find the tension in the rope and reaction at B.

0.5 kN/m

A 60˚ B
6 kNm

2m 1m 3m
8. Determine the reactions in the cantilever beam shown.

40kN
0.5m
300
20 kN/m
0.7m
A

3m 1m 1m
Solution:
TUTORIAL (Additional)
1. The figure shows the concurrent force system acting at a joint of a bridge truss.
Determine the values of P and F required to maintain equilibrium of forces.
2. Two cables tied together at C are loaded with a weight W = 190 N as shown in figure.
Determine the tension in the cable AC and BC to maintain equilibrium.
3. A beam ABCD, hinge supported at B is subjected to loads as shown in the
figure. Calculate force 'F' and reactions at support B. (2 marks)
4. Determine the reactions at the supports A and B for the beam loaded as
shown in the figure. (4 marks)
5. Determine the reactions at the supports A and B for the beam loaded as
shown in the figure. (4 marks)
6. Determine the reactions at the supports A and B for the beam loaded as
shown in the figure. (4 marks)
LECTURE 8
FRICTION
 Introduction

 Terms and Definitions

 Static, Limiting and Kinetic Friction

 Laws of dry friction

 Application Problems
 Introduction
Force which opposes the movement or tendency of movement is known as
frictional resistance or friction.

Defined broadly as the resistance that occurs between two bodies in contact
when they tend to slide or roll relative to one another.

A frictional force is a shear force that acts tangent

to the surface of contact between two bodies. This
force opposes sliding motion between the bodies.
Plays very important role in the analysis of the performance of various
mechanical devices.

Friction – Beneficial and harmful

Advantages:
Walk, Traction, Brake, grind and polish

Disadvantages:
Power loss, wear and tear
 Causes
1. Microscopic irregularities (roughness) on surface

2. Adhesion b/w surfaces --- Molecular attraction (high for highly polished
surfaces)

3. An indentation on one body caused by a second, harder body

 Terms and Definitions
 Coefficient of friction (μ)
 Total reaction (R)
 Angle of Friction (Ɵ)
 Angle of limiting friction (φ)
 Angle of repose (α)

Ɵ
 Coefficient of friction (μ) = Fmax / N

 Total reaction : Frictional force and the normal reaction could be replaced
by a single force called Total reaction. R =

 Angle of Limiting Friction (φ φ) : An angle made by the total reaction (R)

φ = Fmax / N
with the normal reaction (N) when F has reached Fmax. tanφ

 Angle of Repose (α) : The limiting angle up to which the grains repose
(sleep/rest) is called the angle of repose of the granular material
 Limiting Friction: The maximum frictional force that can arise before
an object begins to slide.
 Static friction: Body remains at rest when the applied force is less than
the limiting friction.
 Dynamic friction OR Kinetic friction: Frictional resistance
experienced by the body while in motion.
 Sliding friction friction
Kinetic/Dynamic experienced when a body slides
Friction over another surface.

W Rolling friction  friction

experienced by a body when it
rolls over a surface.
P

Fmax
φ FαN Fmax
µ=
N R
Fmax = µN N
Where Fmax = Limiting Friction
N= Normal Reaction between the contact surfaces
µ = Coefficient of friction
Angle of Repose (α) : limiting angle up to
which the grains repose (sleep) is called the
angle of repose of that granular material.
Significance of Angle of repose:
The angle that an inclined plane makes with the horizontal, when the body
supported on the plane is on the verge of motion due to its self-weight is equal to
the angle of repose.
Angle of repose is numerically equal to Angle of limiting
friction.
Significance of Angle of repose
 Laws of dry Friction
1. The force of friction always acts in the direction opposite to the direction in
which body tends to move.
2. The magnitude of limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces. (Experimentally proved)
3. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces.

4. After the body starts moving, the dynamic friction comes into play, the
magnitude of which is less than that of limiting friction and it bears a
constant ratio with normal force. This ratio is known as coefficient of
dynamic friction
 Application Problems
1. Compute the magnitude of P that will cause the motion to impend up the
plane. Coefficient of friction, μ = 0.20

200N

P
P

30°
φ
R

N1
 FRICTION

P
300

φ R
N1
 Fx = 0 = + P cos 30 − 0.2 N 1 − 200 cos 30
 Fy = 0 = N 1 − P sin 30 − 200 cos 30
P = 175.8 N
 FRICTION
200

OR 600
P
78.70
tan φ = µ = 0.20 R
∴ φ = 11.3° φ

N1
11.30
200 P R
= =
sin 131.3 sin 138.7 sin 90

P = 175.7
LECTURE 9
 Application Problems
 Application Problems
2. Determine the force P required to start the 400 N wedge to the right. Take
Φ=20˚ for all contact surfaces.

2000 N

P 400 N
70˚

Home
3.
4. A 15˚ wedge is driven by a force 4000 N. Find force Q required to resist the
motion of the wedge. Take μ=0.14 for all rubbing surfaces.

4000 N

B 3000 N Q
A

75˚
TUTORIAL 3
 FRICTION

4. An uniform ladder 3m in length and weighing 180N is placed against a wall

with its end A at the floor and the other end B on the wall, ladder AB making
60° with the floor. Coefficient of friction between the wall and ladder is 0.25 and
between floor and ladder is 0.35. In addition to the self weight, the ladder has to
support a person weighing 900N at its top B. To prevent slipping, a force P is
applied horizontally at A at the level of the floor. Find the minimum force P
required for this condition. Find also the minimum angle α at which the above
ladder with the person at the top should be placed to prevent slipping without
the horizontal force P.
 FRICTION
Y +ve

FBD of Ladder X +ve

900N
NB
B

FB

3sinα
180 N
P A
α

FA
3cosα
NA
 FRICTION

Y +ve

a) When α = 60°
X +ve
ΣFx = 0, FA+P-NB=0
0.35NA+P-NB=0
900N
NB=P+0.35NA---------(1)
B NB
ΣFy=0, NA-180-900+FB=0
NA+0.25NB=1080----(2) FB

180 N 3sinα
P A α
FA 3cosα
NA
 FRICTION

Y +ve

ΣMB=0
= 0.35NA × 3sin60 + P × 3sin60
X +ve
+ 180 x 1.5cos60
-NA× 3cos60 900N
= 0 --------(3) B NB

From(1),(2)&(3) FB
NB=499.16N 3sinα
NA=955.21N
∴P=164.80N 180 N
P A α
FA 3cosα
NA
 FRICTION

Y +ve
(b) Force P is removed, α=?
ΣFx=0
FA-NB=0 0.35NA-NB=0 0.35NA=NB---(1) X +ve
ΣFy=0
NA-180-900+FB=0 NA+0.25NB=1080-----(2)
ΣMB=0
0.35NA ×3sinα+180 ×1.5cosα-NA ×3cosα=0----(3)
From(1), (2) &(3)
α=68.95°
5. A ladder 6m long is supported as shown in figure. Coefficient of friction
between floor and ladder is 0.5 and between wall is 0.25 and it supports a
vertical load of 1000N.
a) Determine the least value of θ at which the ladder may be placed without
slipping. 1000 N

b) Find the reaction at A and B. B

Take weight of the ladder as 200N.

5m

θ
A
6. A ladder of length 5m weighing 500N is placed at 45˚ against a vertical wall.
The coefficient of friction between the ladder and wall is 0.2 and ladder and
ground is 0.5. If a man weighing 600N ascends the ladder, how high will he be
when the ladder slips.
If a boy now stands on the bottom of the rung of the ladder what must be
his least weight so that the man can go up to the top of the ladder. 600 N
B
[Ans.: (a) x = 2.92m (b) Wboy = 458N]

45˚
A
TUTORIAL (Additional)
1. A block weighing 200 kN is resting on an inclined plane and is acted upon
by force P as shown in the figure. If the coefficient of friction between the
inclined plane and block is 0.3, calculate force P required to impend the
block up the plane. (3 marks)
2. Block A shown in figure is in contact with 50° inclined plane. The
coefficient of friction between plane and block is 0.25. Compute the value
of force 'P' necessary to just prevent the motion of the block down the
plane. (2 marks)
3. A block of weight 400 kN is lifted by a wedge as shown in the figure.
Calculate force ‘F’ required to rise the block. Consider angle of limiting
friction as 19° at all contact surfaces. (4 marks)
4. A man weighing 750 N starts to climb 7m long ladder weighing 250 N.
Determine distance ‘x’ indicated in the figure when the ladder starts to slip.
The coefficient of friction for all rubbing faces is 0.30. (3 marks)
5. Two blocks A and B are resting against a wall and the floor as shown in figure. Find the
minimum value of horizontal force P applied to the resist the motion of the block A. Given
coefficient of friction between all contact surfaces is 0.2.

103
 CENTROID
AND
MOMENT OF INERTIA
LECTURE 10
• Introduction
• Centre of Gravity, Centroid
• Centroid of Simple figures: using method of
moment ( First moment of area)
• Axis of Symmetry
• To locate centroid of plane areas – Rectangle and
triangle
 INTRODUCTION
A body of weight ‘W’

Parallel lines of action

of forces (since the
Lines of action
radius of the earth is
of forces
large)

Centre of earth
A body is subjected to gravitational force directed towards the center
of the earth.
The magnitude of this force depends on the mass of the body.
Since the size of the bodies are small when compared to the size of
the earth, gravitational forces can be assumed to be parallel.
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The point at which the whole weight of the body may be
assumed to be concentrated.

The point through which the resultant gravitational

force (weight) of the body acts for any orientation of
the body.

A body has only one center of gravity for all positions of

the body and is represented by CG or simply G or C
 CENTROID
The term "center of gravity" applies to the bodies with
mass and weight, while the term "centroid" applies to plane
areas (when the calculation concerns a geometrical shape
only).

In case of plane figures such as rectangle, triangle, circle,

semicircle, etc if the total area is concentrated at one and
only one point it is defined as centroid.

Centroid is the point in a plane area such that the

moment of the area, about any axis, through that point is
zero.
 CENTROID OF SIMPLE FIGURES
Using method of moment ( First moment of area)
Moment of Total area ‘A’ about y-axis = Algebraic Sum
of moment of elemental ‘dA’ about the same axis
Y

X
• CG

O X
 AXIS OF SYMMETRY

It is an axis w.r.t. which for an elementary area on one

side of the axis , there is a corresponding elementary area
on the other side of the axis (the first moment of these
elementary areas about the axis balance each other)

 If an area has an axis of symmetry, then the centroid

must lie on that axis.

 If an area has two axes of symmetry, then the centroid

must lie at the point of intersection of these axes.
For example:
The rectangular shown in the figure has two axis of
symmetry, X-X and Y-Y. Therefore intersection of these
two axes gives the centroid of the rectangle.

Moment of areas, ‘da’ about

y-axis cancel each other
da × (-x) + da × x = 0
da × x = da × x
 CENTROID OF SIMPLE FIGURES
Using method of moment ( First moment of area)
 Rectangle
 Triangle
To locate the centroid of rectangular area from first
principles
 To locate the centroid w.r.t. the base line x-x

Let the distance of centroid

from the base line x-x be y
D
Then from the Principle of
y Moments
X X

A ⋅ y =  y ⋅ da
Moment of Sum of moment of
Total area A = elemental area dA
about x-axis about the same axis
Contd.
13
 Consider a elemental area dA at a distance y from the
base line (x-x)
Let the thickness of the element be ‘dy’

Area of small element

B = dA = B .dy
dy
dA
Moment of this elemental area
y about x-x axis
y
= (area) x (distance)
x x
= (B.dy) . (y)

14
Contd.
Sum of Moment of all such elemental areas comprising the
total area =
=  y ⋅ da

=  B ⋅ dy ⋅ y
 BD 2 
D
 By 2
=  = 
 2 0  2 
BD 2
Then from the Principle of Moments Ay =
2
BD 2 BD 2 D
y= , y= , y=
2A 2 BD 2 Contd.
15
To locate centroid w.r.t the base line x-x

dy
dA
D D y

y y
X X X X
B B

ȳ = D/2
Similarly, we can show

Y Y
dA B

D y D
x
y
X
B
Y x dx Y

= B/2
LECTURE 11
To locate the centroid of right angled triangular area
from first principles

B
 To locate the centroid w.r.t. the base line x-x.
Let the distance of
centroid from the base
line x-x be y
H

x x
Then from the Principle of Moments
A ⋅ y =  y ⋅ da
Moment of Total area Algebraic Sum of moment of
A about = elementary area ‘dA’ about the same
x-axis axis.
20
Contd.
Consider a small elemental area ‘dA’ at a distance ‘y’
from the base line (x-x)
Let the thickness of the element be ‘dy’

Area of small element

= dA = b .dy
b
dy Moment of this small
dA elemental area about x-
y x axis
y = (area) x (distance)
x x
= (b.dy) . (y)
Contd.
21
Then from the Principle of Moments
B (H − y )
A ⋅ y =  y ⋅ da
da = b × dy = × dy
H

B (H − y )
b=
A ⋅ y =  b ⋅ dy ⋅ y H

B (H − y )
A⋅ y =  ⋅ dy ⋅ y
H
H/3
y = H/3
H

y
X X
B
Contd.
22
To locate centroid w.r.t the base line x-x

b
dy
dA
H H y

y y
x x x x

ȳ = H/3
Similarly, we can show

dx

H
x b
B/3 x
Y
B

= B/3
The centroid of right angled triangular area from the base

H
H/3

B/3
x x
B
To locate the centroid of Semi Circular area w.r.t
diameter from first principles
Contd.
27
R-
4R/3
π
TUTORIAL 4
T1. Locate the centroid of the shaded area shown in figure.

B
T2. Determine the centroid of shaded area with respect to
the base. 200mm 200mm

400mm

100
250mm 250mm
400mm

100mm

1100mm
∑A=1100*100+400*100+400*400+2(1/2*100*400)-π*502
=3,42,150 mm2

∑AY=1100*100*50+100*400*300+400*400*700+[(1/2)*100*
400*633.3]*2 - π *502*700 =14,93,38,200mm3
Y= ∑AY / ∑A=436.5mm
T3. Locate the position of horizontal and vertical centroid
of the figure shown below. 300mm

300mm

200

200mm

900mm

[Ans: X = 699.7mm , Y = 265 mm

T4 . Locate the position of centroid of hatched portion
with respect to reference axes shown.
Y

200mm

[Ans: X = 19.99mm , Y = 42.44 mm

TUTORIAL – ADDITIONAL
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the centroid of shaded area w.r.t given reference
axis AB.

Ans: 18.7mm
2.

Ans: 35.82mm
3. Calculate the centroid of shaded area shown in figure
with respect to given reference axis AB.

Ans: -0.23mm
4. Locate the centroid of shaded area with respect to the
axes shown in the figure.(5 marks)

Ans: -11.67, 3.757mm

5. Locate the centroid with respect to the given axes shown in the figure for the
shaded region.

Ans: x = 5cm , y = 2.8cm

6. In a semi-circular lamina a rectangular cut is made as shown in the figure.
Determine the dimension ‘b’ of the rectangle, such that centroid of lamina is at a
height of 15 mm from the base.

Ans : b = 32.06mm
LECTURE 12
 MOMENT OF INERTIA

• Second Moment of Area.

• Radius of gyration.
• Perpendicular Axis Theorem.
• Parallel Axis Theorem.
SECOND MOMENT OF AREA
 The product of area and square of the distance from
reference axis is called second moment of area about
the reference axis.
 Also known as Moment of Inertia represented by ‘I’.
 The axis about which the second moment of area of a
plane figure is considered, is denoted by the subscripts.
Iox= ∫y2dA
Ioy= ∫x2dA, respectively,
y
where: dA
‘y’ and ‘x’ are the distance x
of the elemental area dA
from XX and YY axes y
respectively. o
x
The moment of inertia of the entire area A about the pole
‘O’ (Z-axis) is, by similar definition
Ioz = ∫r2dA, known as polar moment of inertia.

Ioz = Iox+ Ioy , i.e., (r2=x2+y2)

The moment of inertia of an y

area is purely mathematical dA
x
property of the area and in
itself has no physical
significance. r y
o
x
Second moment of area can be considered as the sum of
a number of elements each consisting of an area
multiplied by distance squared

Iox = da1 y12 + da2 y22 + da3 y32 + --

= ∑ da y2
Ioy = da1 x12 + da2 x22 + da3 x32+ ----

= ∑ da x2
Second moment of area can be considered as the sum of
a number of elements each consisting of an area
multiplied by distance squared.
The dimension of the second moment of area is given by
L4 and its unit is m4.
Sign of each term is +ve since the distance is squared.
The first moment of area about the centroidal axis is zero
where as the second moment of area about the centroidal
axis is non zero.
Moment of inertia plays a major role in design of beams,
columns, machine and also helps in selection of members
in structural design.
 APPLICATION
OF
MOMENT OF INERTIA
RADIUS OF GYRATION
Radius of gyration is defined as a constant distance of all
elemental areas which have been rearranged with out altering the
total moment of inertia. Elemental areas A
A

r1 k

r2 k

r3 k

B B
It is the distance from the axis to a point where the concentrated
area of the same size could be placed to have the same second
moment of area with respect to the given axis.
IAB= da k2 + da k2 + ---------- IAB= A k2
-I = ∑ da k2 k=√IAB/A
AB
POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA
(Perpendicular axis theorem)
The polar M.I. for an area w.r.t. an axis perpendicular to its
plane of area is equal to the sum of the M.I. about any two
mutually perpendicular axes in its plane, passing through
the point of intersection of the polar axis and the area.

Y x
Ioz = Ip = J = ∫r2dA
= ∫(x2 + y2) dA r
y
= ∫x2dA + ∫y2dA
O
= Ioy +Iox z x
 Parallel Axes Theorem
dA

x y x
*G

IAB = Ixx+Ad2
d

A B
Moment of inertia of any area about an axis AB is equal
to the M.I. about parallel centroidal axis plus the product
of the total area and square of the distance between the
two axes.
‘xx’ ……… Centroidal axis passing through centroid G
‘AB’ …….. reference axis parallel to centroidal axis ‘xx’
IAB = ∫H2dA
IAB = ∫(y+d)2dA
IAB =∫y2dA+d2∫dA+2d∫ydA
Since ∫ydA about centroidal axis is zero,
Therefore
IAB = Ixx+Ad2
MOMENT OF INERTIA
BY
DIRECT INTEGRATION
 MI of rectangular area about centroidal horizontal
axis by direct integration

+D/2
Ix̅ x̅ =  (dA) y2 dy
-D/2 D/2
y
D
+D/2 x x
Ix̅ x̅ =  (B. dy) y2 G
-D/2

= BD3 / 12
B
 MI of rectangular area about the base by parallel
axis theorem
2
IAB = IXX + A(d)
Where d = D/2, the distance
dy
D/2
between axes xx and AB
y
D
x x
G
3 2
IAB = BD /12+(BD)(D/2)
3 3
= BD /12+BD /4
3
= BD /3 A B
B
LECTURE 13
 MI of triangular area about the base by direct
integration
IAB =  dA.y2 =  (x.dy) y2
h
dy
IAB =  (b(h-y) y2.dy) /h (h-y)

0
h
x
= b[ h (y3/3) – y4/4 ]/h x y x
h/
= bh3/12 3
A B
Using Parallel axis theorem
b
IAB= Ixx + Ad2
Ixx = IAB – Ad2
= bh3/12 – bh/2 . (h/3)2
= bh3/36
 MI of circular area about the centroidal axis
Ixx =  dA . y2
R 2π
dθ
=   (r.dθ.dr) r2Sin2θ
0 0
r
R 2π
y=rSinθ
θ
=  r3.dr Sin2θ dθ x
0 0 x R
R 2π
=  r3 dr  {(1- Cos2θ)/2}dθ
0 0
A B
R 2π
= [r4/4] [θ/2 – Sin2θ/4]
0 0

= R4/4[π - 0] = πR4/4

= π R4/4 = πD4/64
R-
4R/3π
TUTORIAL 5
T4. Compute MI about horizontal centroidal axis.
T5. Determine second moment of area about horizontal
and vertical centroidal axes. 300mm

300mm

200

200mm

900mm

[Ans: X = 699.7mm from A, Y = 265 mm

Ixx = 10.29 x 109mm4, Iyy = 16.97 x 109mm4]
TUTORIAL 6
T6. Find M.I about horizontal centroidal axis for the area
shown. Also calculate radius of gyration.
200mm 200mm

400mm

100
xo
250mm 250mm
xo
400mm
y = 436.5mm

100mm

1100mm
∑A=1100*100+400*100+400*400+2(1/2*100*400)-π*502
=3,42,150 mm2

∑AY=1100*100*50+100*400*300+400*400*700+[(1/2)*100*
400*633.3]*2 - π *502*700 =14,93,38,200mm3
Y= ∑AY / ∑A=436.5mm
Moment of Inertia about horizontal centroidal
Axis:-
IXoXo =[1100*1003/12 +1100*100(386.5)2]+[100*4003/12
+(100*400)*(136.5)2]+[400*4003/12+400*400*(263.5)2]+2[
100*4003/36+(1/2*400*100)*(196.8)2]-
[π*(50)4/4+π*502*(263.5)2]
IXoXo =32.36*109mm4

(radiu of gyration) rXoXo=√(IXoXo/A)=307.536mm.

T7. Find the second moment of the shaded area shown in
fig.about its centroidal x-axis.

30mm 50mm

20mm

40mm
R=20

20mm 40mm 20mm

solution:-

30mm 50mm

20mm 2 3

Xo Xo
40mm
1 31.5mm
R=20
4

20mm 40mm 20mm

∑A=40*80+1/2*30*30+1/2*50*30-1/2*π*(20)2 =3772mm2
∑AiXi =3200*40+450*2/3*30+750*(30+50/3)
-1/2* π*202 *40 =146880mm3
∑AiYi =3200*20+450*50+750*50-628*4*20/3 π= 118666.67mm3
Y =118666.67/3772= 31.5mm

IXoXo = [80*403/12+(80*40)(11.5)2 ]+[30*303/36+

1/2 *30*30(18.5)2 ]+ [50*303 /36 +1/2+50*30*(18.50)2]-
[0.11*204 )+π/2*(20)2 (31.5-0.424*20)]
= 970.3*103mm4
T8. Determine M.I with respect to reference axes Y-Y
shown.

10mm

10mm

6mm

5mm 8mm 5mm 8mm 12mm

 TUTORIAL – 7
(Additional problems)
1. Determine the second moment of area for the hatched
portion shown in figure with respect to given reference
axis AB. (3 marks)
2. Determine moment of inertia of the shaded area
shown in figure with respect to the given reference axis
AB.5 marks)

Ans: 4.995 X 106mm4

3. Determine the second moment of area for the shaded
area shown in the figure w.r.t given axis X-X.
.5 marks)

Ans: 5.113X 105mm4

4. Determine the second moment of area with respect to given
reference axis AB for the shaded region.

Ans: I AB = 716778.3 mm4

5. Determine the second moment of area for the figure shown below w.r.t given
axis AB.

Ans: I AB = 3.7892 X 106 mm4

 MECHANICS OF
DEFORMABLE BODIES

LECTURE 14
LECTURE 15
LECTURE 16
LECTURE 17
LECTURE 18
LECTURE 19
LECTURE 20
TUTORIAL 8
TUTORIAL 9
TUTORIAL 10
 LECTURE 14
Contents:
Introduction
Mechanical properties of materials
Normal stress and strain
Hooke’s law
Modulus of elasticity

HOME
 Normal stress
P P

A B

The body resists the deformation by

R
developing stresses.

P
P
 Normal Stress

Tensile Stress Compressive Stress

P P P P
 Units:
SI unit for stress is Pascal (Pa)
Pa= N/m2 N/m2 N/mm2
1kPa 103 10-3
1MPa 106 1
1GPa 109 103
Kilopascal, 1kPa= 1000 N/m2
Megapascal , 1MPa = 1x 106 N/m2
= 1x 106 N/(106 mm2 )=1N/mm2
1MPa = 1 N/mm2
Gigapascal, 1GPa = 1x 109 N/m2
= 1x 103 MPa
=1x 103 N/mm2
STRAIN

δL Change in the length

ε= =
L Original length

P
σ= = stress
A
δ
ε= = Linear strain
L
E=

Hooks law and Modulus of elasticity

Hooks law:
Stress(σ )
= constant
Strain(ε )

Modulus of elasticity:

Stress (σ ) PL
=
Strain(ε ) Adl
The following table shows modulus of elasticity
of important materials:

Material Modulus of elasticity

Steel 210 GPa
Aluminium 73Gpa
Brass 96 – 110 GPa
Cast Iron 83 – 170 GPa
Concrete 17 – 31 GPa
Rubber 0.0007 – 0.004 GPa
Tungsten 340 – 380 GPa
Tension test on ductile and brittle material
Factor of safety
Allowable stress

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Tension test on ductile and brittle material
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Typical tensile test curve for mild steel

 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Typical tensile test curve for mild steel showing upper yield point
and lower yield point and also the elastic range and plastic range
 Load at proportion ality limit PP
Limit of Proportionality: σP =
Original crosssecti onal area
=
A

Elastic limit: σ E Load at elatic limit P

= = E
Original cross sectional area A

Yield point: σ Y Load at yield point P

= = Y
Original cross sectional area A

Maximum load taken by the material PU

Ultimate strength: σ U = =
Original cross sectional area A

Rupture strength Load at failure P

σB = = B
(Nominal Breaking stress): Original cross sectional area A

True breaking stress: Load at failure P

σB = = B
Actual cross sectional area A
 Gauge length

Increase in gauge
length
 Ductile Materials
Percentage elongation
Measures of ductility
Percentage reduction in area

Cup and cone

fracture for a
Ductile Material ►

Increase in the gauge length (upto fracture)

Percentage elongation = x100
Original gauge length

Reduction in cross sectional area of neck portion (at fracture)

Percentage reduction in area = x100
Original cross sectional area

Example: Low carbon steel, mild steel, gold, silver, aluminum

 Stress-strain Diagram

Brittle Materials :

Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle material

 Working stress & Factor of safety

Ductile Material:

Working stress = Yield Stress / Factor of Safety

Brittle Material:

Working stress = Ultimate Stress / Factor of Safety

Factor of Safety = Maximum stress / Allowable working stress

 LECTURE 16
Contents:
Numerical problems

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N1. A strain gauge located at C on the
surface of bone AB indicates that the
average normal stress in the bone is 3.80
MPa when the bone is subjected to two
1200 N forces as shown. Assuming the
cross section of the bone at C to be
annular and Knowing that its outer
diameter is 25mm, determine the inner
diameter of the bones cross section at C.
N2 A composite bar consists of an aluminum section rigidly
fastened between a bronze section and a steel section as
shown in figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions
indicated. Determine the stress in each section. Also determine
the change in each section and the change in total length.
Aluminum
Bronze Steel
A= 180 mm2
A= 120 mm2 A= 160 mm2
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

300mm 400mm 500mm

 To calculate the stresses, first determine the forces in
each section.
To find the Force in bronze section,
consider a section bb1 as shown in the figure

b
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze

b1

For equilibrium condition algebraic sum of forces on

LHS of the section must be equal to that of RHS
 b
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze

b1
4kN 4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze (= )

Force acting on Bronze section is 4kN, tensile

Stress in Bronze
Force in Bronze section
section =
Resisting cross sectional area of the Bronze section
4kN 4 × 1000 N 2
=
= 120mm2 120mm2 = 33 .33 N / mm = 33.33MPa
(Tensile stress)
 Force in Aluminum section

4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

Aluminum

4kN 13kN 9kN

(= 2kN 7kN )
Aluminum

Force acting on Aluminum section is 9kN,

(Compressive)
 Force in steel section

4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

steel

7kN

4kN 13kN 2kN

steel 7kN

Force acting on Steel section is 7kN, ( Compressive)

Stress in Aluminum Force in Al section
section =
Resisting cross sectional area of the Al section
9kN 9 × 1000 N 2
= = = 50 N / mm = 50MPa
180mm2 180mm2
Compressive stress

Stress in Steel section = Force in Steel section

Resisting cross sectional area of the Steel section
7 kN 7 × 1000 N 2
=
= 160mm2 160mm2 = 43 . 75 N / mm = 43.75MPa

(Compressive stress)
 we know that,
Pbr = +4kN (Tension)
Pal = -9kN (Compression)
Pst = -7kN (Compression)
Deformation due to
compressive force is
shortening in length, and is
considered as -ve

stress (σ) PL
E = strain (ε) = =
AδL
PL
Change in length = δL =
AE
Change in length of 4000 N × 300mm
bronze = δLbr =
120mm2 ×100 ×103 ( N / mm2 )
= 0.1mm
Change in length of − 9000 N × 400mm
aluminum section = δLal = = -0.286mm
2 3 2
180mm × 70 ×10 ( N / mm )
Change in length of − 7000 N × 500mm
steel section = δLst = = -0.109mm
2 3 2
160mm × 200 ×10 ( N / mm )

Change in total
length = δLbr + δLal + δLst = +0.1 – 0.286 - 0.109
= -0.295mm
N3. An aluminum rod is fastened to a steel rod as shown.
Axial loads are applied at the positions shown. The area of
cross section of aluminum and steel rods are 600mm2 and
300mm2 respectively. Find maximum value of P that will
satisfy the following conditions.
a)σst ≤ 140 MPa Take Eal = 70GPa,
b)σal ≤ 80 MPa Est = 200GPa
c)Total elongation ≤ 1mm,

2P Aluminum 4P 2P
Steel

0.8m 2.8m
 To find P, based on the condition, σst ≤ 140 MPa

Stress in steel must be less than or equal to 140MPa.

Hence, σst =
= 140MPa
Pst 2 P
= = = 140 N / mm2
Ast Ast
140 × Ast
P= = 21000 N = 21kN
2

2P Aluminum 4P Steel 2P
2P 4P 2P
2P 2P Tensile
 To find P, based on the condition, σal ≤ 80 MPa

Stress in aluminum must be less than or equal to

80MPa.
Hence, σal =
= 80MPa = Pal = 2 P = 80 N / mm 2
Aal Aal
80 × Aal
P= = 24000 N = 24kN
2

2P Aluminum 4P Steel 2P

2P 4P 2P

2P 2P Compressive
 To find P, based on the condition, total elongation ≤ 1mm

Total elongation = elongation in aluminum + elongation in

steel.
 PL   PL 
1mm =  + 
 AE  al  AE  st
 − 2 PLal   + 2 PLst 
1mm =   +  
 Aal Eal   Ast Est 

 − 2 P × 800   + 2 P × 2800 
1mm = 3  
+ 3 
 600 × 70 × 10   300 × 200 × 10 
P = 18.1kN

Ans: P = 18.1kN (minimum of the three values)

N4. A composite bar consists of an aluminum section
rigidly fastened between a bronze section and a steel
section as shown in figure. Axial loads are applied at the
positions indicated. Determine the stress in each section.
Also determine the change in each section and the change
in total length.
Given Eb = 100 GPa, Ea = 70 GPa, Es = 200 GPa
N5. An aluminum rod is fastened to a steel rod as shown. Axial loads
are applied at the positions shown. The area of cross section of
aluminum and steel rods are 400 mm2 and 200mm2 respectively. Find
maximum value of P that will satisfy the following conditions.
a) σs ≤ 140 MPa
b) σa ≤ 80 MPa
c) Total elongation ≤ 0.5 mm,
Take Ea = 70 GPa and Es = 210 GPa
N6. A member ABCD is subjected to point loads P1, P2,P3
and P4 as shown in figure below.
Calculate the force P3 necessary for equilibrium if P1 = 120
kN, P2 = 220 kN and P4 = 160 kN.
Determine the net change in the length of the member. Take
E = 200 GN/m2.
Given: area and length of AB: 1600 mm2, 0.75 m ;
area and length of BC: 625 mm2, 1.0 m;
area and length of CD: 900mm2, 1.2 m.
A B
C D

P1 P2 P3 P4
 LECTURE 17
Contents:

Expression for deformation of a tapered bar

Expression for deformation of a tapered flat
Application problems

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Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar
of circular cross section shown in the figure, when subjected to
an axial tensile load , W

W W
A B

Diameter
d1 L
Diameter
d2
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A

W W
A
B
d1 x d2
dx
2
(d − d ) πd π
Diameter at x, = d1 + 2 1 ×x c/s area at x, = 1
4
= (d1 + kx)2
L 4
= d1 + k × x
 
 PL   Wdx 
Change in length over a =  = 
π
 AE  dx  (d + kx)2 × E 
length dx is 1
4 
 
Change in length over a L  Wdx 
=  
length L is 0
 π (d + kx)2 × E 
 1 
4 
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A
 
 
Change in length over a L
= 
Wdx

length L is 0
 π (d + kx)2 × E 
 1 
4 
 dt  Put d1+kx = t,
L
 W 
=  k  Then k dx = dt
0
 π (t )2 × E 
 
4 
L L L
4W  t 
− 2 +1
4W  − 1 − 4W  1 
=   =   =  
πEk  − 1  0 πEk  t  0 πEk (
 1 d + kx) 0
4WL WL
= =
πEd1d 2 πd1d 2 × E
4
Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar
AB of rectangular cross section and uniform thickness, as
shown in the figure, when subjected to an axial tensile load ,W.

W W d2
d1
A B
b
L b
 W W d2
d1
A B
b
b
x dx
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A

depth at x, = d1 +
(d 2 − d1 )
×x c/s area at x, = (d1 + kx)b
L
= d1 + k × x
 PL   Wdx 
Change in length over a =  =  
length dx is  AE  dx  (d1 + kx)b × E 
Change in length over a L  Wdx 
=   
length L is 0
 (d1 + kx)b × E 

P
= (log e d 2 − log e d1 )
b× E ×k
2.302 × P × L
= (log d 2 − log d1 )
b × E × (d 2 − d1 )
N7. Find the modulus of elasticity of the material of a
tapering bar from the following data: The bar has 20 mm
diameter at one end, 40 mm diameter at the other, length
1.0 m and axial load of 10 kN. The elongation observed
was 0.1 mm.
N8. A tapered bar of rectangular cross section is 20 mm
wide at one end and 40 mm wide at the other, 8 mm thick
and 800 mm long. The elongation of 0.08 mm was
observed under load P. find the load P, if the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the bar is 100 GPa.
N9. A uniform steel rod of diameter 20 mm is connected to an aluminium rod of diameter
60 mm at one end. The aluminium rod tapers to a diameter of 20 mm at the other end.
The steel rod is 0.6 m long and is connected rigidly to 60 mm diameter end of the
aluminium rod which is 0.4 m long. If E = 200 GPa for steel and 70 GPa for aluminium,
find the total extension under an axial load of 30 kN.
 LECTURE 18
Contents:

Shear stress
Shear strain
Modulus of rigidity
State of simple shear & Complementary shear
Direct stress due to pure shear

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SHEAR STRESS
 SHEAR STRESS

P
P
R R
P P
Fig. a Fig. b Fig. c

Shear resistance R P
Shear stress(τ ) = = =
Area resisting shear A A

This shear stress will always be tangential to the area on which it acts
SHEAR STRAIN

τ B' τ
B C B C C'

A D A D
τ τ
Fig. d Fig. e
BB′
shear strain = = tan φ ≈ φ
AB

Shear modulus:
Shear stress (τ )
= constant = G = Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
Shear strain (φ )
Examples of Shear
 State of simple shear
P
A B

D C
P
(a)
(b)
P τ
A B A B

P' P' τ' τ'

D C
D C
P
τ
(c) (d)
 State of simple shear

Consider an element ABCD in a strained material

subjected to shear stress, τ as shown in the figure

τ
A B

D C
τ
Force on the face AB = P = τ × AB × t
Where, t is the thickness of the
element.
Force on the face DC is also equal to
P
 State of simple shear

Now consider the equilibrium of the element.

(i.e., ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0.)
P
A B
For the force diagram shown,
ΣFx = 0, & ΣFy = 0,
But ΣM = 0
D C
P
The element is subjected
force
to a clockwise moment
P × AD = (τ × AB × t) × AD

But, as the element is actually in equilibrium, there must be

another pair of forces say P' acting on faces AD and BC,
such that they produce a anticlockwise moment equal to ( P
× AD )
 State of simple shear
P B
A
P ' × AB = P × AD
= (τ × AB × t)× AD ----- (1) P' P'
D C
P
If τ1 is the intensity of the shear
stress on the faces AD and BC,
then P ' can be written as, τ B
A
P ' = τ ' × AD × t
τ' τ'
D C
Equn.(1) can be written as τ

(τ ' × AD× t ) × AB = (τ × AB × t) × AD ----- (1)

τ' =τ
 State of simple shear

Thus in a strained material a shear stress is always

accompanied by a balancing shear of same intensity at
right angles to itself. This balancing shear is called
“complementary shear”.
τ
A B
The shear and the
complementary shear together τ'= τ τ'= τ
constitute a state of simple
D C
shear τ
 Direct stress due to pure shear
τ A τ
B A
A B This image cannot currently be display ed.

a a
τ a a
τ τ τ
a a
D C D C
D C
τ τ X
Fig.(a). Fig.(b). A σn
τ a
a
D C
τ Fig.(c).

For equilibrium,
Direct stress due to pure shear

Therefore the intensity of normal tensile stress

developed on plane BD is numerically equal to the
intensity of shear stress.

Similarly it can be proved that the intensity of

compressive stress developed on plane AC is
numerically equal to the intensity of shear stress.
N10. To check the bond strength between reinforcing bars
and concrete, a tensile force of P=30 kN is applied to the
end of the bar of diameter d=12 mm and length L= 100
mm. Calculate the average shear stress developed
between steel and concrete.
N11. A hole is to be punched out of a plate having an
ultimate shear stress of 300 MPa. If the compressive stress
in the punch is limited to 400 MPa,
determine:
(a) Maximum thickness of the plate for which a 100 mm
dia hole can be punched.
(b) If the plate is 10mm thick, smallest diameter hole that
can be punched.

Ans:
t=33.33 mm
d=30 mm
 LECTURE 19
Contents:

Poisson’s ratio
Volumetric strain
Bulk modulus
Relationship between volumetric strain and linear
strain

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POISSON’S RATIO

Fig.(a)

or
 General case:

σx σy σz
Strain in X-direction = εx = −µ −µ
E E E

σy σx σz
Strain in Y-direction = εy = −µ −µ
E E E

σz σy σx
Strain in Z-direction = εz = −µ −µ
E E E
Bulk Modulus

Bulk modulus, K

A body subjected to three mutually perpendicular

equal direct stresses then the ratio of stress to
volumetric strain is called Bulk Modulus.
Relationship between volumetric strain and linear strain

dV 
= (1 + ε x ) 1 + ε y (1 + ε z )  − 1 = 1 + ε x + ε y + ε z  − 1
( )
1  
= εx +εy +εz
= change in volume per unit volume
 Relationship between volumetric strain and linear strain

Volumetric Strain
dV
= εx +εy +εz
V
σx σy σz  σ y σz σx  σz σx σy 

= −µ −µ  +  −µ −µ  +  − µ −µ 
 E E E   E E E E E E 
1 − 2µ
= (σ x + σ y + σ z )
E
For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
N12. A bar of metal 100x50 mm in cross section is 250 mm long.
It carries a tensile load of 400 kN in the direction of its length, a
compressive load of 4000 kN on its 100 mm x 250 mm faces and
a tensile load of 2000 kN on its 50 mm x 250 mm faces. If
E=2x105 N/mm2 and poisson’s ratio is 0.25, find the change in
volume of the bar.
What change must be made in the 4000 kN load in order that
there shall be no change in volume of the bar.
 4000kN

50 400kN
100 Stresses in different
2000kN 250
directions
4000 × 1000 N
σy = 2
= 160MPa
250 × 100mm

400 × 1000 N
50
σx = 2
= 80 MPa
100 × 50mm
100
250
2000 × 1000 N
σz = 2
= 160 MPa
250 × 50mm
 Stresses in different direction
160 MPa

80MPa
σx σy σz
160MPa
εx = −µ −µ
E E E
+ 80 − 160 + 160
εx = −µ −µ = 4 × 10 − 4
E E E
δl x δl x
= = 4 × 10 − 4
lx 250
δl x = 0.1mm
 160MPa

80MPa

160MPa
σy σx σz
εy = −µ −µ
E E E

− 160 + 80 + 160
εy =
E
−µ
E
−µ
E
= − 1.1×10 −3
( )
δl y δl y
ly
=
50
(
= − 1.1×10 −3 )
δl y = −0.005mm
 160 MPa

80MPa

σz σy σx
160MPa
εz = −µ −µ
E E E

+ 160 − 160 + 80
εz =
E
−µ
E
−µ
E
= + 9 × 10 − 4 ( )

δl z δl z
lz
=
250
(
= + 9 × 10 − 4 )
δl z = +0.09mm
 160MPa To find change in volume
dV
= εx +εy +εz
80MPa V
dV
160MPa = (4 − 11 + 9 )×10 − 4 = 2 ×10 − 4
V
( ) ( )
dV = 2 ×10 − 4 × V = 2 ×10 − 4 × 250 ×100 × 50
dV = +250mm3
Alternatively,
dV 1 − 2 µ
= (σ x + σ y + σ z )
V E
dV 1 − 2 µ
= (+ 80 − 160 + 160)
V E
1 - 2µ
= (80) = 2 ×10 −4
E
The change in value that should be made in 4000kN load, in
order that there should be no change in the volume of the bar.

4000kN

400kN
50
100

2000kN 250
 160 MPa
We know that

dV 1 − 2υ
80MPa
= (σ x + σ y + σ z )
160MPa
V E
In order that change in volume to be
zero 1 − 2υ
0= (σ x +σ y +σ z )
E
(+ 80 + σ y + 160) = 0 (σ x +σ y +σ z )= 0
σ y = −240MPa
Py
− 240 =
250 ×100
Py = −6000kN The change in value should be an
addition of 2000kN compressive force
in Y-direction
N13. A bar of steel 40 mm x 40 mm cross section and 150
mm long is subjected to a tensile load of 200 kN along its
longitudinal axis and tensile load of 600 kN and 400 kN
along lateral axis.
Find,
(a) Change in each dimension and change in volume
(b) What longitudinal force alone can produce same
longitudinal strain as in case (a).

Given E= 200 GPa μ=0.3

 LECTURE 20
Contents:
Relationship between modulus of elasticity and
modulus of rigidity
Relationship between E, G and K
Application problems

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Relationship between young’s modulus of elasticity
(E) and modulus of rigidity (G) :-

A1 A B1 B
45˚ a
H
a
φ τ
φ

D C
τ
Consider a square element ABCD of side ‘a’ subjected to pure
shear‘τ’. DA'B'C is the deformed shape due to shear τ.
Drop a perpendicular AH to diagonal A'C.
Strain in the diagonal AC = τ /E – μ (- τ /E) [ σn= τ ]
= τ /E [ 1 + μ ] -----------(1)
Strain along the diagonal AC=(A'C–AC)/AC=(A'C–
CH)/AC=A'H/AC
In Δle AA'H
Cos 45˚ = A'H/AA'
A'H= AA' × 1/√2
AC = √2 × AD ( AC = √ AD2 +AD2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = AA'/ (√2 × √2 × AD)=φ/2 ----(2)
Modulus of rigidity = G = τ /φ
φ = τ /G
Substituting in (2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = τ /2G -----------(3)
Equating (1) & (3)
τ /2G = τ /E[1+μ]
E=2G(1+ μ)
 Relationship between E, G, and K:-

We have
E = 2G( 1+ μ) -----------(1)
E = 3K( 1-2μ) -----------(2)
Equating (1) & (2)
2G( 1+ μ) =3K( 1- 2μ)
2G + 2Gμ=3K- 6Kμ
μ= (3K- 2G) /(2G +6K)
Substituting in (1)
E = 2G[ 1+(3K – 2G)/ (2G+6K)]
E = 18GK/( 2G+6K)

E = 9GK/(G+3K)
N14.A circular rod of 100 mm dia and 500 mm length is
subjected to a tensile force of 2000 kN. Determine the
modulus of rigidity, bulk modulus and the change in
volume, if the poisson’s ratio=0.3 and E=2x105 N/mm2.

Ans:
G=0.77x105 N/mm2
K=1.67x105 N/mm2
dv=1994.9 mm3
N15. The modulus of rigidity of a material is 0.8 x 105
N/mm2 . When a 6 mm x 6 mm bar of this material is
subjected to an axial pull of 3600 N, it was found that the
lateral dimension of bar is changed to 5.9991 mm x
5.9991 mm.
Find μ and E.
 TUTORIAL 8
Contents:

Tutorial problems

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T1. Find the Young’s modulus of a brass rod of diameter 25
mm and of length 250 mm which is subjected to a tensile
load of 75 kN when the extension of the rod is equal to 0.3
mm.
T2. The ultimate stress, for a hollow steel column which carries an axial
load of 2.0 MN is 480 N/mm2. If the external diameter of the column is
200 mm, determine the internal diameter. Take factor of safety as 3.
 TUTORIAL 9
Contents:

Tutorial problems

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T3. A steel flat of thickness 16 mm tapers uniformly from 80 mm
at one end to 50 mm at the other end in a length of 800 mm, If the
flat is subjected to a load of 120 kN, find the extension of the flat.
Also calculate the percentage error if average area is used for
calculating its extension. Take E=2x105 Mpa.

Solution:
T4. A two meter long steel bar is having uniform diameter
of 40 mm for a length of 1 m, in the next 0.5 m its
diameter gradually reduces to 20 mm and for remaining
0.5 m length diameter remains 20 mm uniform as shown
in the figure. If a load of 150 kN is applied at the ends,
find the stresses in each section of the bar and total
extension of the bar. Take E = 200 GPa.
150kN 2 3
1 150kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm
Ф = 40mm
Ф = 20mm
If we take a section any where along the length of the bar, it is
subjected to a load of 150kN.
150kN
σ1 = 2
= 119.37 MPa
π 40
4
150kN 150kN
σ2 = 2
 σ 2 , max . = 2
= 119.37 MPa
πd π 40
4 4
150kN
σ 2,min. = 2
= 477.46 MPa
π 20
4
150kN
σ3 = 2
= 477.46 MPa
π 20
4
 150kN 2 3
1 150kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm
Ф = 40mm
Ф = 20mm
If we take a section any where along the length of the bar, it is
subjected to a load of 150kN.
150kN ×1000
δl1 = = 0.597mm
( 2
π 40 × E
4
)
4 PL 4 ×150kN × 500
δl2 = = = 0.597mm
πEd1d 2 π × E × 40 × 20
150kN × 500
δl3 = = 1.194mm
( 2
π 20 × E
4
) total, δl = 2.388mm
 TUTORIAL 10
Contents:

Tutorial problems

HOME
T5. Determine the magnitude of the load P necessary to
produce zero net change in the length of the bar shown in
the figure below. Take A=400 mm2.
T6. For the bar shown below, determine diameter of the
central portion and its length, if the total extension of the bar
is 0.16 mm. Take E=200 GPa. Stress at central portion is
limited to 140 N/mm2

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T7. A tension test is carried out subjected on a mild steel
tube of external diameter 18 mm and internal diameter 12
mm. An an axial load of 2 kN produces an extension of
3.36 x 10-3 mm on a length of 50 mm and a lateral
contraction of 3.62 x 10-4 mm of outer diameter.
Determine E, μ,G and K.
Ans:
E=2.11x105 N/mm2
µ=0.3
G=81.15x103 N/mm2
K=175.42x103 N/mm2
 ADDITIONAL
TUTORIAL PROBLEMS

HOME
AT1. A two meter long steel bar is having uniform diameter of 40
mm for a length of 1 m, in the next 0.5 m its diameter gradually
reduces to 20 mm and for remaining 0.5 m length diameter remains
20 mm uniform as shown in the figure. If a load of 150 kN is applied
at the ends, find the stress in each section and total extension of the
bar. Take E = 200 Gpa
AT2. Determine the magnitude of the load P necessary to produce
zero net change in the length of the bar shown in the figure below.
Take A=400 mm2.
AT3. A steel bar of 400 mm x 120 mm x 60 mm is
subjected to forces as shown in the figure. Find the
change in dimension. Taking E = 200 GPa and µ = 0.25.
AT4. A circular concrete pillar consists of six steel rods of
total area 2280 mm2. Determine the area of concrete required
when it has to carry a load of 1000 kN. Take allowable
stresses for steel & concrete as 140 MPa & 8 MPa
respectively. Take Es = 15 Ec.
 LECTURE 21

Stresses due to fluid pressure in

thin cylinders
• Introduction
• Circumferential Stress or Hoop Stress.
• Longitudinal Stress
• Maximum Shear Stress
• Evaluation of Strain
 INTRODUCTION:

In many engineering applications, cylinders are

frequently used for transporting or storing of liquids,
gases or fluids.

Eg: Pipes, Boilers, storage tanks etc.

These cylinders are subjected to fluid pressures.

When a cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, at
any point on the cylinder wall,
A cylinder or spherical shell is considered to be thin
when the metal thickness is small compared to
internal diameter. i. e., when the wall thickness, ‘t’ is
equal to or less than ‘d/20’, where ‘d’ is the internal
diameter of the cylinder or shell, we consider the
cylinder or shell to be thin, otherwise thick.
 STRESSESS INDUCED IN THIN CYLINDER

1. CIRCUMFERENTIAL or HOOP STRESS (σC):

σc σc
L

d
t t
p

pd
σc =
2t
2. LONGITUDINAL STRESS (σL):
t

σL
σL
p
σL σL

pd
σL =
4t
3.MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS:

pd
τ max =
8t
 EVALUATION OF STRAINS

σ L=(pd)/(4t)

σ C=(pd)/(2t) σ C=(pd)/(2t)

σ L=(pd)/(4t)
A point on the surface of thin cylinder is subjected to biaxial
stress system, (Hoop stress and Longitudinal stress) mutually
perpendicular to each other, as shown in the figure. The strains due
to these stresses i.e., circumferential and longitudinal are obtained
by applying Hooke’s law and Poisson’s theory for elastic materials.
 EVALUATION OF STRAINS
σ L=(pd)/(4t)

σ C=(pd)/(2t) σ C=(pd)/(2t)

σ L=(pd)/(4t)

Circumferential strain= ε c = δ d = pd (2 − µ )
d 4tE
δ L pd
Longitudinal strain = εL = = (1 − 2µ )
L 4tE
δV
pd
Volumetric strain = εV = = (5 − 4µ )
V 4tE
 JOINT EFFICIENCY

The cylindrical shells like boilers are having two types of joints
namely Longitudinal and Circumferential joints. Due to the holes for
rivets, the net area of cross section decreases and hence the stresses
increase. If the efficiencies of these joints are known, the stresses can
be calculated as follows.
Let ηL=Efficiency of Longitudinal joint
and ηC=Efficiency of Circumferential joint.

Circumferential stress is given by,

 Longitudinal stress is given by,

Note: In longitudinal joint, the circumferential stress is developed

and in circumferential joint, longitudinal stress is developed.
 Illustrative Problems
Q.9.1
A thin cylindrical shell is 3m long and 1m in internal diameter. It is
subjected to internal pressure of 1.2 MPa. If the thickness of the sheet is
12mm, find the circumferential stress, longitudinal stress, changes in
diameter, length and volume . Take E=200 GPa and μ= 0.3.
SOLUTION:
1. Circumferential stress, σC:
σC= (p×d) / (2×t) = (1.2×1000) / (2× 12)
= 50 MPa (Tensile).

2. Longitudinal stress, σL:

σL = (p×d) / (4×t) = σ C/2 = 50/2
= 25 MPa (Tensile).
3. Circumferential strain, εc:
(p × d) (2 − μ) (1.2 ×1000) (2 − 0.3)
εc = × = ×
(4 × t) E (4 ×12) 200 × 103
25 × (2 − 0.3) -04
= 3
= 2.125 × 10 (Increase)
(200 ×10 )
Change in diameter, δd= εc ×d = 2.125×10-04×1000 = 0.2125 mm
(Increase).
4. Longitudinal strain, εL:
(p × d) (1 − 2 × μ) (1.2 ×1000) (1 − 2 × 0.3)
εL = × = ×
(2 × t) E (2 ×12) 200 ×103
50 × (1 − 2 × 0.3) -05
= 3
= 5 × 10 (Increase)
(200 ×10 )

Change in length = ε L ×L= 5×10-05×3000 = 0.15 mm (Increase).

 dv
Volumetric strain, :
V

dv (p × d) (1.2 ×1000)
= × (5 − 4 × μ) = 3
× (5 − 4 × 0.3)
V (4 × t) × E (4 ×12) × 200 ×10
= 4.75 × 10-4 (Increase)
π
∴ Change in volume, dv = 4.75 × 10 × V = 4.75 × 10 × ×1000 2 × 3000
-4 -4

4
= 1.11919 ×106 mm 3 = 1.11919 ×10-3 m 3
= 1.11919 Litres .
Q.9.2
A cylindrical boiler is 800mm in diameter and 1m length. It is
required to withstand a pressure of 100m of water. If the permissible
tensile stress is 20N/mm2, permissible shear stress is 8N/mm2 and
permissible change in diameter is 0.2mm, find the minimum thickness
of the metal required. Take E = 89.5GPa, and μ = 0.3.
SOLUTION:
Fluid pressure, p = 100m of water = 100×9.81×103 N/m2
= 0.981N/mm2 .
1. Thickness from Hoop Stress consideration: (Hoop stress is critical
than long. Stress)
σC = (p×d)/(2×t) i. e., 20 = (0.981×800)/(2×t)
Therefore, t = 19.62 mm
2. Thickness from Shear Stress consideration:
(p × d) (0.981 × 800)
τ max = i.e., 8 =
(8 × t) (8 × t)
∴ t = 12.26mm.
3. Thickness from permissible change in diameter consideration
(δd=0.2mm):

Therefore, required thickness, t = 19.62 mm.

Additional Tutorial Problems
AT1. A cylindrical boiler is 800 mm in diameter and 1 m
length. If the permissible tensile stress is 15 N/mm2,
permissible shear stress is 10 N/mm2 and permissible
change in diameter is 0.25 mm, find the pressure to be
borne by the cylinder if the thickness of the metal is
10mm. Take E = 90 GPa, and μ = 0.28. Compute the
change in length for the pressure determined. (Ans:
0.0367 mm)

AT2. At a point in a thin cylinder subjected to internal

fluid pressure, the value of hoop strain is 600×10-4
(tensile). Compute the hoop and longitudinal stresses.
How much is the percentage change in the volume of the
cylinder? Take E=200 GPa and μ = 0.28.
Summary

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STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS

Lecture 22
Lecture 23
Tutorial 11
Lecture 24
Tutorial 12
 LECTURE 22

 Introduction
 Compound bars subjected to external loads
 Illustrative Example

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 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS

Introduction
• Structure for which equilibrium equations are
sufficient to obtain the solution are classified as
statically determinate.

• But for some combination of members subjected to

axial loads, the solution cannot be obtained by merely
using equilibrium equations.

• The structural problems with number of unknowns

greater than the number independent equilibrium
equations are called statically indeterminate.
 COMPOUND / COMPOSITE BAR

A compound bar is one which is made of two or more than two materials
rigidly connected, so that they sustain together an externally applied
Compound
load sharing theBar
load –in Meaning
correspondence with their modulus of
elasticity and cross sectional area.
Assumptions
 Equations to be used
1) Equilibrium Equation: based on free body diagram of the structure
or part of the structure.
i.e Applied load is equal to sum of the loads carried by each member
W = σ1 A1 + σ2 A2 (1)
2) Compatibility Equation: based on geometric relations regarding
elastic deformations, produced by the loads.
i.e Change in length in all the materials are same or proportional,
depending on the condition
(dL)1 = (dL)2
(σ1/ E1)L1 = (σ2 /E2)L2
σ1 = σ2 ×( E1/E2)(L2/L1) (2)
E1/E2 is called modular ratio
From Equation (1) & (2) σ1 and σ2 can be calculated
 Steps to be followed
1. Write the given data

2. Apply compatibility condition

a. Express σ of one material in terms of the other

3. Apply equilibrium condition

a. Substitute σ values

4. Solve the unknowns

N1. A load of 300 kN is supported by a short concrete column
250 mm square. The column is strengthened by 4 steel
bars at the corners with total c/s area of 4800 mm2. If
Es=15Ec,
a) Find the stress in steel and concrete.
b) If the stress in concrete is not to exceed 4 MPa, find the
area of steel required so that the column can support a load of
600 kN.
 Steel
Case(i)
As = 4800mm2
Ac = (250× 250) – 4800
= 57,700 mm2
250mm

250mm W = σs As + σc Ac
300 × 103 = 15 σc × 4800 + σc× 57,700
Deformation is same σc = 2.31 N/mm2
(dL)s = (dL)c σs = 15σc
(σs / Es )× Ls = (σc / Ec)× Lc = 15 x 2.31
σs / 15Ec= σc/Ec = 34.69N/mm2
σs = 15σc (1)
Case (ii)

W= σs As + σc Ac

600× 103 = 15 σc × As + σc Ac

600 × 103 = (15 × 4) As + 4 (250 × 250 – As)

As = 6250 mm2
Summary

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 LECTURE 23

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

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N2. A mild steel rod 5 mm diameter passes centrally through a copper
tube of internal diameter 25 mm and thickness 4mm. The
composite section is 600 mm long and their ends are rigidly
connected. It is then acted upon by an axial tensile load of 50 kN.
Find the stresses & deformation in steel and copper. Take Ec = 100
GPa, Es = 200 GPa
 Steel
5mm Since deformation are same
(dL)s = (dL)cu
Copper
25mm (σs / Es)×Ls =( σcu / Ecu )× Lcu
600mm σs / (200 × 103 )= σcu / (100 ×
103)
33mm σs = 2 σcu
W = σs As+ σcu Acu
50KN
50 × 103=2σcu ×( π/4) (5)2 + σcu × π/4 [(33)2 – (25)2]
σcu = 123.86N/mm2
σs = 247.72 N/mm2
(dL)s = (σs / Es )× Ls (dL) =[247.72/(200 ×103)] ×600
s
=0.74mm
= (dL)cu
N4. Two copper rods and one steel rod together supports a rigid block
of unknown weight W as shown in figure. The stress in copper and
steel are not to exceed 60 MPa and 120 MPa respectively. Find the
safe load that can be supported. Take Es = 2Ec
Solution:
Deformations are same
(dL)s = (dL)cu
(σs / Es) × Ls = (σcu / Ecu )× Lcu
(σs / 2Ecu )× 200 =( σcu / Ecu )× 120
σ s = 1.2 σcu

Let σcu=60MPa=60N/mm2,σs=1.2x60 = 72N/mm2 < 120N/mm2

(safe)
Safe load = W = σs× As + 2( σcu ×Acu )
= 72(40× 40) + 2 ×[60×(30 × 30)]

Safe load = W = 223.2 × 103 N = 223.2 kN

 TUTORIAL 11

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

HOME
T1. A rigid bar AB 9m long is suspended by two vertical rods at its
end A and B and hangs in horizontal position by its own weight.
The rod at A is brass, 3m long, 1000 mm2 c/s area and Eb = 105
N/mm2. The rod at B is steel, length 5m, 445 mm2 c/s area and Es =
200 GPa. At what distance x from A, if a vertical load P = 3000 N
may be applied for the rigid bar to remain horizontal.
Deformations are same
(dL)b = (dL)s
(σb / Eb )× Lb = (σs / Es )× Ls
(σb / 105) ×(3× 103) = [σs / (200 × 103)] × [5 × 103]
σs = 1.2 σb

W= σsAs + σbAb
3000= (1.2 σb × 445) + (σb × 1000)

σb = 1.95N/mm2 σs = 2.34N/mm2

+ve ΣMA= 0
-(3000) (x) + (2.34 × 445) × 9000 = 0
x = 3123.9 mm
= 3.12m from A
If the load of 3000N is kept at a distance of 3.12m from
A, bar AB will remain horizontal.
T2. A mild steel bar of c/s 490 mm2 is surrounded by a copper
tube of c/s 210 mm2 as shown. When they are placed centrally
over a rigid bar, it is found that steel bar is 0.15 mm longer.
Over this unit a rigid plate carrying a load of 80 kN is placed.
Find the stress in each material.
Take Es = 200 GPa, Ec = 100 GPa.

80kN

0.15mm Steel bar

Copper tube
1000mm
 Solution:

(dL)s = (dL)cu + 0.15

(σs / Es ) × Ls =( σcu / Ecu )× Lcu + 0.15
[σs / (200 × 103)] × 1000.15 = {[σcu / (100 × 103)] ×1000} + 0.15
σ s = 2 σcu + 30

W = σs ×As + σcu ×Acu

80× 103 = [( 2σcu + 30)× 490] + (σcu × 210)

σcu = 54.87N/mm2

σs = (2×54.87) + 30
= 139.84N/mm2
 LECTURE 24

Temperature stress
Compound bars subjected to temperature stresses
Illustrative problems

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 Temperature Stress

A B

L B
B´
A
P

L αTL

A B

L
From the above figure it is seen that ‘B’ shifts to B' by an
amount ‘αTL’. If this expansion is to be prevented a
compressive force is required at B'.

Temperature strain = αTL/(L + αTL) ≈ αTL/L= αT

Temperature stress = αTE

Hence the temperature strain is the ratio of expansion or

contraction prevented to its original length.

If a gap δ is provided for expansion then

Temperature strain = (αTL – δ) / L
Temperature stress = [(αTL – δ)/L] E
 Temperature stress in compound bars:-

When a compound bar is subjected to change in temperature,

both the materials will experience stresses of opposite nature.
Compressive force on material (1) = tensile force on material (2)
σ1A1 = σ2A2 (there is no external load)
σ1=( σ2A2)/A1 (1)
As the two bars are connected together, the actual position of the
bars will be at XX.
Actual expansion in material (1) = actual expansion in material (2)
α1TL – (dL)1 = α2TL + (dL)2
α1TL – (σ1 / E1) L =α2TL + (σ2 / E2) L
α1T – (σ1 / E1) = α2T + σ2 / E2 --------------------------(2)
From (1) and (2) magnitude of σ1 and σ2 can be found out.
 N5. A steel rail 30 m long is at a temperature of 24˚C. Estimate the
elongation when temperature increases to 44˚C.
1) Calculate the thermal stress in the rail under the following
two conditions :
(i) No expansion gap provided
(ii) A 6 mm gap is provided for expansion
2) If the stress developed is 60 MPa , what is the gap left between the
rails?
Take E = 200 GPa, α = 18 x 10-6 /˚C
Free expansion αTL = 18 × 10-6 ×(44-24) × 30 × 103 = 10.8mm
i) No expansion gap provided:-
Temperature stress = αTE
= 18 × 10-6 × 20× 200 × 103
= 72N/mm2
ii) 6mm gap is provided for expansion
temperature stress =[( αTL – δ) / L] E
=[(10.8 – 6)/(30 × 103 )] ×200 × 103
= 32N/mm2
when stress = 60MPa
temperature stress = [( αTL – δ) / L] E
= [(10.8 – δ ) / (30 × 103 )] × 200 × 103
δ = 1.8mm
Summary

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 TUTORIAL 12

 Numerical problems

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T3. A steel bar is placed between two copper bars. The steel bar and
copper bars have c/s 60 mm × 10 mm and 40 mm × 5 mm
respectively, and are connected rigidly on each side. If the
temperature is raised by 80°C, find stress in each metal and change in
length. The length of bar at normal temperature is 1m. Es = 200 GPa,
Ec= 100 GPa, αs = 12 x 10-6/ ° C, αc = 17x10-6/ ° C

Copper 40mm

Steel 60mm

Copper 40mm
Compressive force on copper bar = tensile force on steel bar
2σcu ×Acu = σs ×As
2σcu ( 40 × 5) = σs ( 60 × 10)

σcu = 1.5σs
Actual expansion in copper = Actual expansion in steel
αcuTLcu - (dL)cu = αsTLs + (dL)s
αcuTLcu - (σcu / Ecu) Lcu =αsTLs + (σs / Es) Ls

Since Lcu = Ls
(17 × 10-6 × 80 )– 1.5σs /(100 × 103) = (12× 10-6 × 80) + σs /(200 × 103)
σs = 20N/mm2(T)
σcu=1.5 × 20 = 30N/mm2 (C)
Δ = Change in length = αcu ×T×Lcu – (σcu / Ecu) Lcu
= 17×10-6 × 80 × 1000 – [30/(100 × 103)]× 1000
Δ = 1.06mm
T4. A horizontal rigid bar weighing 200 kN is hung symmetrically by
three vertical rods each of 1 m length and 500 mm2 c/s symmetrically as
shown. Temperature rise is 40º C. Determine the load carried by each
rod and by how much the horizontal bar descends. Given Es = 200 GPa.
Ec=100 GPa. αs =1.2 x 10-5/ ºC. αc=1.8x 10-5/ ºC. What should be the
temperature rise if the entire load of 200 kN is to be carried by steel
alone.

Copper
Steel Copper

200 kN
[ (dL) T + (dL) L]cu = [ (dL)T + (dL)L]st
[αcuTLcu +( PcuLcu / Acu Ecu ) ] = [αsTLs +( PsLs / AsEs )] -----(1)
For equilibrium condition ∑Fv = 0: Ps + 2Pcu = 200 × 103
Ps = 200 × 103 – 2Pcu
Substituting in (1)
[1.8 × 10-5 × 40 + Pcu/ (500 × 100 × 103)]
={ 1.2 × 10-5 × 40 +[ (200 × 103 – 2Pcu ) / (500 × 200 × 103)]}

Pcu = 44,000N
Ps = 200 × 103 – 2 × 44,000
Ps = 112 × 103N
Elongation = αcuTLcu + (Pcu ×Lcu )/(Acu ×Ecu)
= 1.8 ×10-5 × 40 ×1000 +[ 44000 × 1000/(500 × 100 × 103)]
dL=1.6mm
Case (ii)
Steel Copper

Pcu Pcu
Ps
Note: When
entire load is
(dL)T carried by
(dL)T (dL)L 200kN (dL)T steel, copper
will have
extension
due to temp.
[ (dL)T ]cu = [ (dL)L + (dL)T]s only
αcuTLcu = PsLs / AsEs +αsTLs
[1.8 × 10-5 ×T] =[(200 × 103) / (500 × 200 × 103) +1.2 × 10-5 × T]
T= 333.33ºC
T5. A bar is composed of 3 segments as shown in figure. Find the
stress developed in each material when the temperature is raised by
50˚C under two conditions
i)Supports are perfectly rigid
ii) Right hand support yields by 0.2mm
Take Es = 200 GPa, Ec =100 GPa, Ea = 70 GPa, αs = 12 x 10-6/ ºC,
αc = 18 x 10-6/ ºC, αa = 24 x 10-6/ ºC.
Case(i) Supports are perfectly rigid
(dL)s + (dL)cu + (dL)al = αsTLs + αcuTLcu + αalTLal
= (12× 10-6 ×50 × 150 ) +(18 × 10 -6 × 50 × 200) +(24 × 10-6 × 50 ×150)
= 0.45mm

(σs/Es) Ls + (σcu/Ecu) Lcu + (σal/Eal) Lal = 0.45mm

[σs/(200× 103)]×150+[σcu/(100×103)]×200+[σal/(70× 103)]×150=0.45 -(1)

From principle of compound bars

σsAs = σcuAcu = σalAal
σs × 200 = σcu × 400 = σal × 600

σs=2σcu σal = 0.67σcu

Substituting in (1)
[2σcu/(200 × 103)]×150+[σcu/(100 × 103)]×200+[0.67σcu/(70×103)]
×150=0.45
σcu = 91.27N/mm2
σs = 2σcu = 182.54N/mm2, σal = 0.67 σcu = 61.15N/mm2

Case (ii) Right hand support yield by 0.2mm

(σs/Es) Ls + (σcu/Ecu) Lcu + (σal/Eal) Lal = 0.45 – 0.2=0.25
[2σcu/(200 × 103)]×150+[σcu/(100 × 103)]×200+[0.67σcu/(70×103)]
×150=0.25
σcu = 50.61N/mm2
σs = 2σcu = 101.22N/mm2,σal = 0.67 σcu = 33.91N/mm2
Additional Tutorial
Problems
AT1. Three vertical rods AB, CD, EF are hung from rigid
supports and connected at their ends by a rigid horizontal bar.
The rigid bar carries a vertical load of 20 kN. Details of the bars
are as follows:
• Bar AB :- L=500 mm, A=100 mm2, E=200 GPa
• Bar CD:- L=900 mm, A=300 mm2, E=100 GPa
• Bar EF:- L=600 mm, A=200 mm2, E=200 GPa
• If the rigid bar remains horizontal even after loading,
determine the stress and elongation in each bar.
Deformations are same
(dL)AB = (dL)CD = (dL)EF
(σAB / EAB) × LAB = (σCD / ECD) × LCD = (σEF / EEF) × LEF

[σAB/(200 ×103)]× 500 =[σCD /(100 ×103)] ×900= [σEF /(200× 103 )] × 600

σAB = 3.6× σCD, σEF = 3× σCD

W = (σAB× AAB ) + (σCD ×ACD) + (σEF ×AEF)

20 × 103 = (3.6 × σCD × 100) + (σCD × 300) + (3σCD × 200)

σCD = 15.87N/mm2
σAB = 3.6 × 15.87 = 57.14N/mm2
σEF = 3 × 15.87 = 47.61N/mm2

dLAB = (σAB / EAB) × LAB = [57.14/(200 × 103)] ×500

dLAB = 0.14 = (dL)CD = (dL)EF
AT2. A compound bar of circular cross section consists
of a brass portion AB and steel portion BC fixed
between two rigid supports as shown in figure. If the
temperature is increased by 140° C, find the stress in
each segment and change in length of segment AB.
Consider Ebr = 85 GPa; αbr = 20 ×10-6 /oC and Est = 210
GPa, αst = 11×10-6 /oC.
AT3. A circular cross-section tapered bar is rigidly
fixed between two supports at its ends. If the
temperature is raised by 30 °C, calculate the max stress
in the bar, if, (i) the supports are perfectly rigid; (ii)
each support yields by 0.08 mm. Diameter varies from
10 cm to 20 cm; length is 1 m; E = 200 GN/m2; α =
12×10-6/ °C.
AT4. Two vertical rods are rigidly fixed as shown in the
figure. A cross bar fixed to the rods at the lower end
carries a load of 5 kN such that the cross bar remains
horizontal even after loading. Determine i) stress in
each rod ii) position (X) of the load on the cross bar.
Take Es = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and Eu = 1 × 105 N/mm2.