100 Practical Civil Engineering

FIGURE 6.10 Simple curve.

• Point of tangency (PT): Tangency point is the point
at which the curve nishes. At this point, the forward
tangent is tangent to the curve.
• Degree of curve (D): The degree of curve de nes
the “strength” or “ atness” of the curve. There are
two widely used de nitions for the curve degree,
the arc, and the chord de nition. The relationship
between radius (R) and curve degree (D) may be
speci ed as
R = 5730 D (6.5)
• Length of curve (l):
6.10.1.2 Methods of Setting Out of
Single Circular Curve
• By offsets or long chord ordinate.
• Gradually bisecting arcs or chords.
• By tangent offsetting.
• Offsets produced from the chord.
6.10.2 COMPOUND CURVE
The typical compound curve layout is shown in Figure 6.11.
The elements of a compound curve are point of curvature
(PC), point of tangency (PT), point of intersection (PI), point
of compound curves (PCC), tangent length of the rst curve
(T1), tangent length of the second curve (T2), vertex of rst

l = R∆ (6.6)

where Δ is in radians.

πR
l= ∆ (6.7)
180°

where Δ is in degrees.

∆
Tangent length: T = R tan (6.8)
2

1
Length of the long chord L : L = 2Rsin ∆ (6.9)
2

∆
Apex distance E : E = R  sec − 1 (6.10)
 2 

∆
Mid-ordinate M : M = R  1 − cos  (6.11)
 2 FIGURE 6.11 Compound curve.
Principles of Surveying 101

curve (V1), vertex of second curve (V2), central angle of rst

curve (I1), central angle of second curve (I2), angle of intersec-
tion (I) = I1 + I2, curve length of rst curve (Lc1), curve length
of second curve (Lc2), chord length of rst curve (L1), and
chord length of second curve (L2).

• The common tangent measurement length from V1

to V2 = T1 + T2
• Θ = 180° − I
• X and Y can be found from the triangle V1 − V2 − PI
• L can be found from the triangle PC − PCC − PT

Tangent lengths can be computed as

∆s
ts = Rs tan (6.12)
2

∆L FIGURE 6.12 Transition curves.

t L = RL tan (6.13)
2
• Curvature on the junction of the circular curve
sin ∆ l should be the same.
Ts = ts + t L + tS (6.14)
sin ∆ • Rate of increase of curvature = rate of increase of
super elevation.
sin ∆ s
TL = ts + t L + tL (6.15)
sin ∆ 6.11 EARTHWORKS

where ∆ = ∆ s + ∆ L (6.16)
Length of curves can be computed as
πRs ∆ s
ls = (6.17)
180
πRL ∆ L
lL = (6.18)
180
l = ls + l L (6.19)
6.10.3 TRANSITION CURVES
The centrifugal forces start developing during the turn, so that
the motor vehicle and its entire contents are instantly subject
to centrifugal forces. The velocity of the vehicle is greater at
the curvature, and the effort on vehicles and drivers to change
from tangent to curve is greater. If transition curves are not
provided, drivers tend to form their own transition curves by
relocating laterally in their travel lane and often in the adja-
cent lane, that is, not only risky for them but also for other
road users. Figure 6.12 shows a typical transition curve.
6.10.3.1 Requirement of Transition Curve
The major requirements of a transition curve are as follows:
• It should be straight to tangential
• It should meet the circular curve tangentially
• Curvature at the origin should be zero.
One of the main aims of land survey is the quantifying of the
area of the tract surveyed and the volume of earthwork. The land
area in the aircraft survey is the area estimated on a horizontal
plane. The main goal of the survey is to calculate the areas and
the volumes. The lands are usually of irregular shaped polygons.
6.11.1 COMPUTATION OF AREAS
Graphical methods are those used to acquire the necessary data
from the plan calculations. In this particular case, the actual
gure area is found as a whole or the skeleton areas and the
irregular strips are individually found. The skeleton areas are
rst subdivided into several regular polygons by means of sur-
vey lines. Then the area can be calculated as: (1) measurement
of the survey skeleton area plus; (2) assessment of the area
between skeleton survey lines and boundaries. The instrumen-
tal method is used to ascertain the area of a map by means of
a planimeter. It is the quickest method and generates precise
results compared to other methods. There are two kinds of
planimeter—polar planimeter Amsler and planimeter rolling.
6.11.1.1 Areas of Skeleton
Areas of skeleton are determined from geometry as follows:
1. By dividing into triangles: Splitting the gure into
a fraction of triangles was the most reliable method.
The sides of each triangle are calculated or the base
and elevation are scaled and its area is located. Area
of a triangle forming a skeleton is computed as
Area = s s − a s − b s − c (6.20)
102 Practical Civil Engineering

where a, b, c are the side of triangle and semiperim- where O 0 = ordinate at one base end; On = ordinate at the
eter, s = (a + b + c)/2 other end of the base fragmented into n equal divisions;
O1, O2,… = ordinates at each divisions end.
Area = 1 2 × base × height (6.21)
6.11.1.2.3 The Trapezoidal Rule
2. By division into square: A piece of tracing paper
The boundaries between the ends of the ordinates are pre-
ruled out into squares in this technique is positioned
sumed to be straight in trapezoidal rule. The areas between
over the drawing, each assigning it to a certain num-
the base and the irregular border lines are therefore deemed
ber of square meters or square centimeters. The num-
to be trapezoids
ber of the entire square is calculated and the area is
ascertained. The sections of the fractured square are
 O + On 
calculated for the entire square and the broken square. ∆= 0 + O1 + O2 + + On−1  d (6.26)
 2 
3. By splitting into trapezoids or by sketching paral-
lel lines and transferring them to rectangles: The Add the end offset average to the middle offset sum. Multiply
length of the rectangles is attained by placing the the total amount thus achieved by the common distance
tracing paper over the plane and area is computed between the ordinates in order to attain the needed area.
according to:
6.11.1.2.4 Simpson’s Rule
Required area = length of rectangles The limits between the ends of the ordinates are presumed to
form an arc of parabola in Simpson’s rule. Therefore, the rule
× constant distance common breadth of Simpson is almost always referred to as a parabolic rule. It
(6.22) states clearly that there must be a sum of rst and last ordi-
nates. Add the remaining unusual ordinates twice and the sum
Area of Trapezium = 1 2 sum of parallel sides of the remaining ordinates four times. Multiply the common
distance between the ordinates that gives the necessary area
× distance between them
(6.23) by 1/3 of the total amount.
= 12 a + b × h
d
∆=  O0 + On + 4 O1 + O3 + + On−1
6.11.1.2 Considering the Area along Boundaries 3
The area is computed by any of the techniques, e.g., the mid- + 2 O2 + O4 + + On−2  (6.27)
ordinate method, the average ordinate method, the trapezoidal
rule, or the Simpson’s rule.

6.11.1.2.1 Midpoint-Ordinate Rule 6.11.2 COMPUTATION OF VOLUME

The rules clearly state that if the sum of all ordinates in the Volumes are computed from cross sections or contours. The
middle of each division is multiplied by the length of the base rst two methods are commonly used for the calculation of
line with the ordinates. earth work while the third method is generally adopted for the
calculation of reservoir capacities.
Area = ∆ = Average ordinate × Length of base
6.11.2.1 Method of Cross Sections
O + O2 + + On Cross sections are well ideally suited to the calculation of
Area = 1 L = O1 + O2 + + On d = d ∑ O
n pipeline quantities, roads, canals, dams, etc. For most prevalent
(6.24)
cross-sectional cases, typically used equations are given below.

where O1, O2,… = the ordinates at the mid-points of each 6.11.2.1.1 Horizontal Ground (Figure 6.13)
division; ∑O = sum of the mid-ordinates; n = number of divi- Structures made by man usually have constant slopes
sions; L = base line length = nd; d = each divisions distance.
b
6.11.1.2.2 Average Ordinate Rule w= + m⋅h (6.28)
2
The rule says that the average number of ordinates taken
in each of the equal length divisions multiplies by baseline
2w + b
length divided by number of ordinates. Area = h ⋅ = h b + m⋅h (6.29)
2
Area = ∆ = Average ordinate × Length of base
6.11.2.1.2 Sloping Ground with Constant
O + O1 + + On L Cross-Fall (Figure 6.14)
Area = 0 L= ∑O (6.25)
n +1 n +1 The ground is normally not at. If the cross-fall is constant,
Principles of Surveying 103

b rs  b 
w2 = +  − h  (6.34)
2 r − s  2r

w
h1 =  h + 1  (6.35)
 r 

w
h2 =  h − 2  (6.36)
 r 

FIGURE 6.13 Horizontal ground.  b  

2
+ rh
1    
Area in cutting, A1 =  2  (6.37)
2 r−s 
 
 

 b  
2

  − rh  
1  
Area in filling, A2 =  2  (6.38)
2 r−s 
 
 

6.11.2.1.4 Three-Level Section (Figure 6.16)

FIGURE 6.14 Two-level section. In this particular case, the cross-slope of the ground is not
formal and r1:1 on one side and r 2:1 on the other side of the
b  k  cross-sectional center line.
w1 =  + m ⋅ h  (6.30)
2   k − m 
r1s  b
w1 =  h +  (6.39)
b  k  r1 − s 2s
w2 =  + m ⋅ h   (6.31)
2   k + m 
r2 s  b
w2 =  h +  (6.40)
 b  b2  r2 + s 2s

 2 + m ⋅ h  w + w −
 2 
1 2

Area =  (6.32)
2m b h
Area, A = h1 + h2 + w1 + w2 (6.41)
4 2
This is a two-level section, as two points de ne the cross-fall.

6.11.2.1.3 Side Hill Two-Level Section (Figure 6.15)
In this speci c case, the ground slopes transversely and the
slope of the ground reduces the level of formation so that one
part of the area is in the cutting and the other part is in the
embankment.
6.11.2.1.5 Multilevel Section (Figure 6.17)
In this case, the coordinate system is adopted to work out the
cross-sectional area and the points of change of level are given
coordinates.

b rs  b
w1 = +  h +  (6.33)
2 r−s 2r

FIGURE 6.15 Side hill two-level section. FIGURE 6.16 Three-level section.
104 Practical Civil Engineering

If d is the prismoid length quanti ed perpendicular to the two

parallel planes at the end, A1 is the cross-sectional area of one
end plane, A2 is the cross-sectional area of the other end plane,
Am is the cross-sectional area of the middle part of the plane
between and parallel to the end planes, V is the prismoid volume,

d
V= A1 + A2 + 4 Am (6.47)
6

6.11.3 METHODS OF CONTOURS FOR

VOLUME COMPUTATION
In this method, the contour plan is studied in detail and pro-
les of cross sections are drawn with respect to the contour
gradient, and the earthwork volumes between adjacent cross
sections are calculated using a trapezoidal rule.
FIGURE 6.17 Multi-level section.
6.11.4 PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION FOR VOLUME
1 The term prismoidal correction is used to indicate the
A= ∑F − ∑D  if SF > SD (6.42)
2 difference in volume obtained by the application of trapezoi-
dal formula and prismoidal for the same volume. For a level
1 section, if A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the two
A= ∑D − ∑F if SD > SF (6.43)
2 sections at distances d apart with formation width b, side
where SF = sum of the products of the coordinates connected slope s:1 and with h and H heights at the center,
by full lines
ds 2
Prismoidal correction, C p = h−H (6.48)
SD = sum of the product s of the coordinates joined by 6
dotted lines
6.11.5 CURVATURE CORRECTION FOR VOLUMES
∑ F = w1h2 + w11h21 (6.44)
The correction for curvature can be applied in the following
b two ways.
∑ D = h w1 + w2 + h1w2 + h11w12 + h2 + h21 (6.45)
2
6.11.5.1 Equivalent Areas
After obtaining the cross-sectional areas as above, the volume
The corrected area of each section is obtained by the following
of earthwork is worked out by applying any one of the follow-
expression:
ing two formulae:
e
• Trapezoidal formula Equivalent area of section = A  1 ±  (6.49)
 R
• Prismoidal formula
where A is the area of section, e is the centroid of area, and
6.11.2.2 Trapezoidal Formula R is the radius of curvature. Use + sign if the centroid is the
This is known as average and area rule, and it is presumed that center of curvature on the opposite side of the center line
a solid is a trapezoid between two consecutive cross sections. and − sign vice versa.

A + An 6.11.5.2 Pappus Theorem

Volume V = d  1 + A2 + A3 + + An −1  (6.46)
 2 
d e
Curved volume Vc = A1 + A2  1 ±  (6.50)
where A1, A2, A3,…, An are the equispaced cross-sectional 4  R
areas, d is the distance between two consecutive areas, and V
is the volume of earth work. where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of end sections,
d is the distance between the sections, R is the radius of cur-
6.11.2.3 Prismoidal Formula vature, and e is the mean distance of the centroid.
A prismoid is regarded as a solid whose end faces are located
in parallel planes and comprise two polygons, not inherently
6.12 GEODETIC SURVEYING
of the same kind of number of sides; the longitudinal faces are
plane surfaces between the end planes. The longitudinal faces The curvature of the earth is kept in mind in geodetic sur-
can be triangles, trapezia, and parallelograms. veys and a greater degree of accuracy is attained in linear