CIV 4103: TRAFFIC &

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
Chapter 6: GEOMETRIC DESIGN-
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
PART B
 OUTLINE
• Introduction
– Importance horizontal alignment?
– Key factors in geometric design
• Design speed
• Sight distance
– Perception reaction time
– Brake reaction time
– Brake distance

• Horizontal alignment
– Simple circular curve equations
– Super elevation
– Sight distances on horizontal curves
– Transition curves
2
 6.2. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• Horizontal alignment refers to plan view of a
road
– Involves straights or tangents, curves & other
transition elements.

Existing ground level

Final Road Level

Datum

0+000 0+050 0+100 0+150

Chainages: km + meters

3
 OUTLINE
• Introduction
– Importance horizontal alignment
– Key factors in geometric design
• Design speed
• Sight distance
– Perception reaction time
– Brake reaction time
– Brake distance

• Horizontal alignment
– Simple circular curve equations
– Super elevation
– Sight distances on horizontal curves
– Transition curves
4
6.2.1. Simple Circular Curve Equations
• PC is point of curvature, point
at which curve starts
• PI is point of intersection, point
at which two tangent lines meet
• PT is point of tangency, point at
which the circular curve ends
LC • T is the tangent length
• E is the external distance from
PI to centre of the curve
• M is the middle ordinate,
distance from middle of the
curve to middle of long chord
• Δ is angle of deflection or
external angel of curve
• R is the curve radius
• LC is long cord, from PC to PT
5
6.2.1. Simple Circular Curve Equations
• Tangent length, T 
T  R tan  
2
• Length of curve, L:
Δ  Δ 
L=2πR = πR  
360  180 
Degree of curvature, D is a central angle subtending a given length of arc,
According to (MOWHC, Section 6, Geometric Design Manual 2004),
length of arc by D is 20m
20x180 1145.92
 = =D
πR R

AASHTO definition D is the central angle which subtends an arc of 100 feet,
100x180 5729.58
 = =D
πR R
6
 6.2.1. Simple Circular Curve Equations
• Length of curve = f(deflection angle & D):
– Recall: Δ  Δ 
L=2πR = πR  
360  180 
If D subtends an arc length of 100ft (AASHTO),
 D 
L  100  πR  
 180 
Make R the subject,
100x180
R=
πD
Substituting the above expression for R in L above:
 Δ  100x 180  Δ  100Δ
L=πR   = π  =
 180  π D  180  D
100Δ
 L=
D
If D subtends 20m arc length (MOW)
20Δ
L=
D

7
6.2.1. Simple Circular Curve Equations
• Length of long cord:
Δ
LC  2Rsin  
2
• External distance:
 1 
E  R   1  LC
 cos   2  

• Middle ordinate:
   
M  R  1  cos   
  2 

8
Example 1: Use Road Design Manual (2010)
procedure.
• A curve has a deflection angle Δ=20018’02” and
a degree of curvature 40 00’. The point of
intersection (PI) is 5+053.87. Calculate radius
(R), Tangent (T), external distance (E), curve
length (L), Point of curvature (PC) and point of
tangent (PT).

9
 Example 2: Use Road Design Manual (2004)
procedure.
• Solution?
• R= 286.49m
• T=51m
• L=101.5m
• M=4.5m
• PC=5+2.57
• PT=5+104.07

10
 OUTLINE
• Introduction
– Importance of horizontal alignment
– Key factors in geometric design
• Design speed
• Sight distance
– Perception reaction time
– Brake reaction time
– Brake distance

• Horizontal alignment
– Simple circular curve equations
– Super elevation
– Sight distances on horizontal curves
– Transition curves
11
 6.2.2. SUPERELEVATION OF HORIZONTAL
CURVES
• Vehicles traversing a curve experience
centrifugal force W

CF
F
N

• Equilibrium of forces:
Vertically : W  N
Wv 2
Horizontal ly :  F  N  W
gR
v2
 Centrifuga l ratio, 
gR
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 6.2.2. SUPERELEVATION OF HORIZONTAL
CURVES
• When centrifugal ratio exceeds friction then
skidding v2
Centrifuga l ratio, 
gR
• No skidding, centrifugal ratio less than friction
v2
Centrifuga l ratio, 
gR
– If μ, and v are known, then minimum radius, R
required to prevent skidding can be computed

13
 6.2.2. SUPERELEVATION OF HORIZONTAL
CURVES
• Equation of minimum radius:
v2
 ,
gR
(Vkm/hrx10 00) 2 (Vkm/hr) 2
R 
(9.81)x(  )x(3600) 2 (9.81)x(  )x(
3600 2
)
1000
V2
R
127 
OR :
V2
 , V in km/hr, radius in m
127 R

14
 6.2.2. SUPERELEVATION OF HORIZONTAL
CURVES
W

CF
h
A F
d
N

• Taking moments about the wheels/tyres:

Wv 2 Wd
h , h is height of center of gravity
gR 2
d  wheelbase distance
v2 d
h
gR 2
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 6.2.2. SUPERELEVATION OF HORIZONTAL
CURVES
• To prevent overturning:
v2 d

gR 2h

• Vehicle dimensions
– d must be large and h must be low to prevent
overturning

• Super elevate/bank carriageway surface to

increase frictional force

16
 6.2.2. SUPERELEVATION OF HORIZONTAL
CURVES
• Super elevation/carriageway banking (e) aids in
resisting the centrifugal force
total rise in road surface from edge to edge
e (%)  x100
Road width
W

CF

a F
2 2
N
V V
= μ+e,  μ+e, (e = tanα)
gR 127R
The above equation is called the minimum radius equation.
Where: V = speed in km/h, R = radius, μ = coefficient of friction,
e = superelevation
17
Frictional values (MOWT, 2010)

18
Design speed, e, f and R values (MOWT, 2010)

19
 6.2.2. SUPERELEVATION OF HORIZONTAL
CURVES
• Typical e values:
• TRRL, Road note 6:
– e should not exceed 10%

• AASHTO recommends maximum, e in the range

4-12%
• For urban areas e is in the recommended range
of 4-6%

• It is neglected for low-speed urban streets and

intersections.

• e is introduced slowly
– On tangents and circular curves/transition curves

20
 OUTLINE
• Introduction
– Importance of horizontal alignment
– Key factors in geometric design
• Design speed
• Sight distance
– Perception reaction time
– Brake reaction time
– Brake distance

• Horizontal alignment
– Simple circular curve equations
– Super elevation
– Sight distances on horizontal curves
– Transition curves
21
 6.2.3. SIGHT DISTANCES ON HORIZONTAL
CURVES
• On horizontal curves visibility maybe limited by
roadside objects (on inside of the curve) that
block the drivers’ line of sight

• M-value can be used to assess whether tree

growth or buildings along curves make them
unsafe, so as to reduce speed or remove them.

22
 Simple Circular Curve Equations

M is the middle ordinate

L.C

23
6.2.3. SIGHT DISTANCES ON HORIZONTAL
CURVES

24
6.2.3. SIGHT DISTANCES ON HORIZONTAL
CURVES

L  20
D

 d s  20
D
ds D
 
20
      d D    d D 
M  R 1  cos   R 1  cos s   R 1  cos s 
  2    2 x 20    40 
1145.5 1145.5
Recall : R  D
D R
  d D    d 1145.5    d 
 M  R 1  cos s   R 1  cos s x   R 1  cos 28.64 s 
  40    40 R    R 

25
6.2.3. SIGHT DISTANCES ON HORIZONTAL
CURVES
Incase of AASHTO (D subtends an arc length of 100ft) :
  5.73d s 
M  R 1  cos 
  R 

• Roadside objects should not exceed distance M,

measured from the centreline of inside of the
curve.

26
 6.2.3. SIGHT DISTANCES ON HORIZONTAL
CURVES
Where ds is given by:

Vi 2 -Vf 2
0.278tVi +
254  f ± 0.01G 
where: Vi =initial speed in km/h, Vf =final speed in km/h,
t= PRT, f= 0.348, G = grade (%).

27
 OUTLINE
• Introduction
– Importance of horizontal alignment
– Key factors in geometric design
• Design speed
• Sight distance
– Perception reaction time
– Brake reaction time
– Brake distance

• Horizontal alignment
– Simple circular curve equations
– Super elevation
– Sight distances on horizontal curves
– Transition curves
28
 6.2.4. TRANSITION CURVES
• Radius increases from
infinity to a value R
• Why transition curves?
– Enable vehicles change θ
from tangents to circular
curves and vice versa

– Centrifugal force is
introduced gradually as LT
the radius increases U
T
– Super elevation is applied
here

– Improves the road

appearance at horizontal
curves.

29
 6.2.4. TRANSITION CURVES
I
Δ
w
V S
T1 T2
T U

Transition Transition
VW= initial circular curve
O, centre

– Circular curve length reduces when transition curves are

inserted (from VW to T1T2)

27/04/2021 30
 6.2.4. TRANSITION CURVES
• Shift angle:
Ls
s  , Ls  length of transitio n, R  radius of circular curve
2R

Ls 2
• Shift: Shift =
24R

• Transition length, Ls:

V3
Ls = 3
3.6 cR
Where: V= speed in km/h, c= rate of change of radial acceleration (m/s3 ),
c= 0.3m/s3
31