COTM 3191:

HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING I
Chair, infrastructure Design & Construction ,EIABC

cotmext@gmail.com (Assignment
submission address)
CHAPTER-3
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
OF HIGHWAYS
3.1 CONCEPTS

 Alignment is a 3D problem broken down into two 2D

problems
 Horizontal Alignment (plan view)
 Vertical Alignment (profile view)

 Stationing (Chainage)
 Chainage is simply the longitudinal distance (usually in m or Km) along a
centerline from a start or zero point. It is a measuring scheme used in
roads, rail, pipelines, tunnels, canals etc.
 Measured along horizontal alignment(usually two types)
 12+100 = 12 km & 100 m= 12,100m
 12+10 =1km & 210m= 1210m

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HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT(PLAN VIEW)

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Addis Adama express way

Switch back
curves at
escarpment terrain

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VERTICAL ALIGNMENT(PROFILE VIEW)

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STATIONING(HORIZONTAL &VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT)
Horizontal Alignment(directional view)

Vertical Alignment(elevation difference)

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 Examples of Drawings of Highway Projects
Plan & Profile Drawing 1

Plan & Profile Drawing 2

Typical Cross-section

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3.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
3.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 Objective:
 Geometry of directional transition to ensure:
 Safety
 Comfort

 Primary challenge
 Transitionbetween two directions
 Horizontal curves Δ
 Consists of
1. Straight sections/ Tangents
2. Circular curves
3. Transition Curves

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 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
1. Tangents
 Usually longer in flat terrain but shorter in other
terrain types
 Longer Tangents provide:
Positive  A better visibility
Impact  More passing opportunity


 Increased danger of headlight glare

Negative  Excessive speeding & the resulting accident
Impact
 Driver fatigue & dizziness which cause accident

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 According to ERA GDM, the maximum
length of tangent section shouldn’t exceed 4
Km

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HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
2. Horizontal Circular Curves
2.1 Types

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HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

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 Broken-back (also referred to as "flat back") curves are a
combination of two curves in the same direction with an
intervening short tangent.
 Reverse curves: are also a combination of two curves but in
opposite directions with an intervening short tangent.
 Compound curves: curves in the same direction but with
different radii, and without any intervening straight section.

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DESCRIPTIONS

Simple curve compound curve

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Reverse curve
GUIDELINES FOR MINIMUM LENGTH OF THE
CURVE

Minimum Horizontal Radius table for 8% Supper elevated roads(Rural)

Minimum Horizontal Radius table for 4% Supper elevated

roads(Urban )

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RADIUS AND DEGREE CURVES

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 ELEMENTS OF SIMPLE HORIZONTAL CURVE
FUNDAMENTALS

PI
• Where:
T Δ
PC= point of curvature E
(beginning of curve) M Δ/2

PI= Point of Intersection L

PC PT
PT= Point of tangency
L=Length of Curve
C= Chord length
R R
M= Middle Ordinate
E= External distance Δ/2 Δ/2
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R= Radius of circular curve
T= Tangent length
O
 HORIZONTAL CURVE FUNDAMENTALS

L R
180 PI
T Δ

T  R tan E
2 M
 1  PC
L
Δ/2 PT
E  R  1
 cos  2 
 
M  R1  cos  R R
 2
 Δ/2 Δ/2
C  2 R sin 20
2
PROPERTIES OF COMPOUND CURVE
   1
  2

 1 
t 1
 R1 
 tan
2 


 2 
t 2
 R2 
 tan 
2 

T 1
 t 1
 Vv1

T 2
 t 2
 Vv 2

Vv 2

t1  t 2
 Vv1
Sin1 sin(180   ) sin  2

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It is preferable that the ratio
of flatter radius to sharper
radius not exceed 1.5:1.

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EXAMPLE 1
Two tangents intersect at a deflection angle of 23o18’02’’ and a simple
horizontal curve of Radius 1400m long inserted to join the two
tangents. If the point of intersection PI is at station 2+200, determine
•The Tangent distance
•External Distance
•Curve Length
•The Length of the Chord & Middle ordinate
•The Stations of PC & PT

EXAMPLE 2
A simple horizontal Curve of radius 600m were used to join two
tangents of a highway. The curve has a length of 250m and the station
of PI was 6+250. Determine the station of PT and the distance of PI 23
from the curve.
EXAMPLE-3
A Compound curve consists of two simple horizontal curves of radius
R1=600m & R2=400m was introduced to join two tangents which
meet at station 255+800. If the central angles of the larger and the
smaller circular curves are 36o28’12’’ and 42o 36’05’’ respectively.
Determine the stations of PC, PCC and PT.

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ASSIGNMENT. 1(HA)

A Compound curve of radius R1=1200m & R2=800m was introduced

to join two tangents which meet at station 45+260 with a deflection
angle of 68o28’12’’ . If the central angle of the smaller circular curves
is 38o36’05’’. Determine
• The stations of PC, PCC and PT.
•The radius of a simple horizontal curve, that can substitute
the compound curve

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SETTING OUT OF HORIZONTAL CURVES(READING
ASSIGNMENT-4)

 For simple curve, the following methods are used

1. Offset from Tangent method
2. Offset from Long chord
3. Deflection Angle from PC and normal chord
4. Deflection angle method from PC & PT using
two theodolite

PLEASE REFER TO YOUR SURVEYING COURSE &

ANY SURVEYING BOOKS
READING ASSIGNMENT-4 26
REFERENCES

 P.H. Wright and K.K Dixon. (2010). Highway Engineering, Seventh

Edition. Chapter 7

 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

(AASHTO). (2001). A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, Fourth Edition. Washington, D.C.

 Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA). (2002). Geometric Design Manual,

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
 Addis Ababa City Roads Authority (AACRA). (2003). Geometric
Design Manual, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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3.3 VERTICAL
ALIGNMENT
3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 It consists two elements
1. Tangent Grade[ straight lines in vertical plane]
2. Vertical Curves
3.3.1. Tangent Grades
 Are characterized by their slope or grade
 It is also related with the vehicles performance & the level
of service required
 The effect of steep grade is to slow down heavier vehicles
(vehicles with smaller power/weight ratio)
 In addition to the steepness of grades ; the length of the
grade also another critical factor
 Hence we need to have maximum grade limits

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3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 Maximum Gradient
 Vehicles operation over gradient depends on many factors
 The steepness & the length of grade
 Vehicle composition

 The number of overtaking opportunity

 And others

 ERA geometric design manual specify different grades for

various design standards and terrain type

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3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 Minimum Gradient
 A longitudinal minimum gradient of tangent grades are
specified in design standards for drainage purpose
 A minimum grade of 0.5% is recommended in both AASHTO
& ERA geometric design manual for curbed highways &
streets

 However, for uncurbed & paved roads in flat terrain

provision of sufficient crown slope can be satisfactory

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3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Table showing limit for Maximum length of gradient on roads designed
with different Design classes

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3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
3.3.2 Vertical Curves
 Between two tangent grades, in order to ensure a smooth
transition[ grade change].

 Objective of inserting vertical curves

 a constant rate of change of grade
 Comfortable driving operation

 Pleasant appearance and

 Safety

Parabolic Vertical curves are provided between tangent

grades.

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3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 There are two types of Vertical curves
1. Crest Vertical curve [G2-G1 is negative]
2. Sag vertical curves [G2-G1 is positive]

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VERTICAL CURVE FUNDAMENTALS
 Parabolic function
 Constant rate of change of slope
 Implies equal curve tangents

y  ax  bx  c
2

 y is the roadway elevation at x distance

from the beginning of the curve

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VERTICAL CURVE FUNDAMENTALS

y
PVI
G1 δ/A
PVC
x G2
PVT
L/2

L
x

PVC = Point of Vertical Curvature

y  ax  bx  c
2
PVI= Point of Vertical Intersection
PVT= Point of vertical tangency
L= Length of Vertical Curve 36

a = Half of Rate of change of grade

 RELATIONSHIPS

At the PVC : x  0 and Y  c

dY
At the PVC : x  0 and  b  G1
dx
d 2Y G2  G1 G2  G1
Anywhere: 2
 2a  a
dx L 2L

NB:
• G1, G2 in decimal form,
• L in meter

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RELATIONSHIPS
PVI
G1 δ
PVC G2
PVT
L/2

L
x

y  r / 2 x  g1x  Ele.PVC
2

N:B G& g are used
synonymously in this
presentation
Where:
y= elevation of a point on the curve
r= rate of change of grade
x=horizontal distance measured from PVC
g1= Entry grade 38

g2= Exit grade

OTHER PROPERTIES •G 1 ,
G2 in percent
•L in meter

G1 x

PVT
PVC

Y
Ym G2

PVI Yf
A  G1  G2

A 2 AL AL
Y x Ym  Yf 
200 L 800 200 39
EXAMPLE -1
A 400 m equal tangent vertical curve has a PVC station of 100+000 at
256.4m. elevation. The initial grade is 2.0 percent and the final grade
is -4.5 percent. Determine the type of curve (sag or crest), the
elevation and stationing of PVI, PVT, and the high point/Lowest point
of the curve.

(EXAMPLE-2)
Two grade lines intersect at station 2+200 where the point of vertical
intersection (PVI) elevation is 239.5m. The starting grade is -6% and
the ending grade is +2%. If the length of the curve is 500m, compute
a. The stations and elevations of PVC & PVT
b. The elevation of the curve at station 2+200
c. The station and elevation of the highest/lowest point on
the curve 40
d. The elevations at full stations at 20m interval
 (ASSIGNMENT-1 VC)

A -2.5% grade is connected to a +1.0% grade by means of a 180m

parabolic vertical curve. The PVI station and elevation are 100+100
and 100.2m respectively. compute
a. The stations and elevations of PVC & PVT
b. The elevation of the curve at station 100+100
c. The station and elevation of the highest/lowest point on
the curve
d. The elevations on the curve at full stations of 20m interval

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 CHAPTER – 4

Safety Considerations in
Geometric Design of Highway

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What are Safety Considerations taken
into account in the Geometric Design
Process?
 SightDistance
 Supper Elevation

 Lane Widening

 Design Speed

 Minimum Vertical clearance

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4.1 Sight Distance

Stopping sight distance (SSD)

Passing sight distance (PSD)

Length of vertical curve has a significant effect on both passing and

stopping sight distance.

Therefore, sight distance provided on the vertical curve is a function of

curve length.

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 LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE
 What is Length of Vertical Curve?
 What elements of the vertical curve are governed by the
length of vertical curve?
 How does it affect the vehicle operation?

 How should we determine its length?

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LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE CONT.…
o Minimum length of vertical curve set based on;
a) Sight distance requirement
b) Comfort standards
c) Appearance criteria
d) Vertical clearance

 There are two ways to determine Length of vertical curve

a. Determining curve length based on Stopping sight distance value
b. Determining curve length based on ‘K’ value

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a. Determining Vertical curve length based on SSD Value
For crest vertical curves

SSD

PVI
Line of Sight

PVC PVT G2
G1

h2
h1

For SSD < L For SSD > L

L
A SSD 
2

L  2 SSD  

200 h1  h2  2

 
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2
100 2h1  2h2 A
 Crest vertical Curve Cont.…
 According to AASHTO for Stopping sight distance
 h1 = driver’s eye height = 1.08m.
 h2 = tail light height = 0.6m.

 Simplified Equations

For SSD < L For SSD > L

A SSD 
2
658
L L  2 SSD  
658 A 48
 Sag Vertical curve

Light Beam Distance (SSD)

G1
headlight beam (diverging from LOS by β degrees) G2

PVC PVT

h1 PVI
h2=0

L For SSD > L

For SSD < L
200 h1   SSD  tan  
A SSD  L  2 SSD  
2
L A
200 h1  SSD tan  
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 Sag Vertical curves Cont.….
 Assumptions for design
 h1 = headlight height = 0.6m
β = 1 degree

 Simplified Equations

For SSD ≤ L For SSD > L

A SSD   120  3.5 SSD  

2
L L  2 SSD    
120  3.5 SSD   A 

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51
b. Determination of Length of vertical curve based on K- Value
 K-Value (defines vertical curvature)
 The number of horizontal distance needed for a 1% change in
slope
L
K
A
 Design standards set the value of K for different design
speeds to ensure sufficient sight distances, riding comfort,
aesthetics and safety.

 According to ERA design manual the value of K for different

design speeds for both stopping & passing sight distances is
shown below
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LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE USING
VERTICAL CURVATURE

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54
LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE USING
VERTICAL CURVATURE(K-VALUE)

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 EXAMPLE- 4.1

Determine the minimum length of vertical curve between an entry

grade of +2.5% and an exit grade of -1.5% for a road with a 100Km/h
design speed and intended to provide 190m long stopping sight
distance.

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EXAMPLE -4.2
A car is traveling at 50 km/h in the country at night on a wet road
through a 50 m long sag vertical curve. The entering grade is -2.4
percent and the exiting grade is 4.0 percent. A tree has fallen across
the road at approximately the PVT. Assuming the driver cannot see
the tree until it is lit by her headlights, is it reasonable to expect the
driver to be able to stop the car before facing collision with tree?

EXAMPLE -4.3
Along a road with a design speed of 70Km/h, a -5.5% grade intersect
with a +2.5% grade at station 75+20 and elevation 56.08m.

a. Determine the minimum length of the vertical curve to the

nearest 20m according to ERA Geometric design manual for
both Stopping sight distance & passing sight distance
requirement.
b. Determine the station & elevations of PVC, PVT and the
highest/lowest point 57
c. Prepare the setting out data at 20m full stations.
 Minimum Curve Length for Vertical Clearance

In some cases the length of vertical curve may be limited

by the need to provide clearances over or under objects
such as:
 Overpasses
 Drainage structures
 Utility Lines

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 Vertical Clearance Cont.…

Elev. PVC

PVC PVT

C
m: represents the sum of elev. Elevation of an
of an object & C. PVI object (e)
Z: horizontal distance b/n PVI
& location an object.
C: vertical clear distance z
required b/n an object & road
profile.
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e: Elevation of top surface of an
object.
EXAMPLE-4.4
A vertical curve joins a -1.2% grade to a +0.8% grade. The PVI of the
vertical curve is at station 75+00 and elevation of 50.90m. The
centerline of the roadway must clear a pipe located at station 75+40 by
0.80m. If the elevation of the pipe is 51.10m, assume design speed
120 km/hr.
a.Determine the minimum length of the vertical curve that can be used.
b.Check the length of the vertical curve determined above if it is
sufficient for SSD requirement of 180m
c. Determine the station & elevations of PVC, PVT and the
highest/lowest point
d.Prepare the setting out data at 20m full stations.

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 EXAMPLE-4.5

 Given the profile below, determine;

a) The length of vertical curve needed to make the highest
point on an overpass vertical curve come out exactly over
the centerline of the cross road at station 150+70.
b) The vertical clearance between the profile grade on the
vertical curve and the centerline of the cross road.

Station of PVI: 150+00

PVI Elevation of PVI: 48.00

+6%
-3%
Cross Road CL 61
Elevation of cross road
center line:37.50
 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

 d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction

 d2 = distance covered by passing vehicle while it is in the opposing lane
 d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
 d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle 62
 Source: ERA Design Manual-2002

 d4 = 2d2/3

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 Horizontal Curve Radius Based on Stopping Sight Distance

The minimum radius of a horizontal curve depends on

 Design speed Vd of the highway,

Super elevation e,
Coefficient of side friction fs.

Where,
Rm : Minimum Horizontal Radius
e: supper elevation value
fs: coefficient of friction

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Where
HSO: Horizontal Sight offset

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Where
R: Radius of horizontal curve measured from the center line of inner lane to center
of the curve.

m: horizontal clear distance b/n the center line of inner lane to an obstruction on
the side of the road.

SSD: Stopping sight distance on the horizontal curve

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 Example: 4.6
A horizontal curve with a radius of 400m connects the tangents of a two-
way and two-lane highway of 3.5m/lane that has a posted speed limit of
80Km/hr.
Determine the horizontal sightline offset (HSO) that a large billboard can be
placed from the centerline of the inside lane of the curve, without reducing
the required SSD. Perception-reaction time is 2.5 sec, and fs = 0.35.

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 Reading Assignment
Read about Lane widening
Types of widening
Why do we need to widen lane
width?
What are factors that affect the
amount of widening that we are
going to provide?

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