CHAPTER 3

(3.1) Geometric design, sight distance,

curve design and superelevation
(3.2) Flexible Pavement Design
(3.3) Rigid Pavement Design
2. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• Horizontal alignment in needed when two straight roads (tangents)
intersect.

• Horizontal alignment is an important feature in road design which

enhances smooth driving and safety among motorists.

Figure 3-1: A photo

showing horizontal
alignment
q TANGENT, CIRCULAR CURVE ANDTRANSITION CURVE
Tangent:
• The tangent is the straight section of the road.
• A horizontal curve will be required to connect two tangents of which
are in directions.

Road tangent 2

Horizontal Curve

Road tangent 1
Curve Direction
Types of Horizontal Curves
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL
CURVE
Simple Circular curve:
R = Radius (m)
PI C = Long Chord (m)
D T = Tangent Length (m)
M = Middle Ordinate
T E = External Distance(m)
E L = Length of Arc (m)
L PI = Point of Intersection
M
PC = Point of Curvature
PT PT = Point of Tangency
PC
C
D = Intersection Angle =
Central Angle

Formulas
T = R tan (D /2)

R R C = R sin (D /2)
LC = 2R sin (∆/2)

E = R [sec(D /2) – 1]
Δ/2 Δ/2
M = R [1 – cos (D /2)]

L = (D/360)(2pR)
Minimum Curve Radius

• The point-mass formula is used to define vehicular operation around

a curve. Where the curve is expressed using its radius, the basic
equation for a simple curve is given below:
• The Public Works Department (JKR) proposes a maximum superelevation,
emax of 6% for urban roads and 10% for rural roads.

• The desired minimum curve radius proposed by JKR and the Malaysian
Highway Authority (LLM) are shown in Table 5.1 and 5.2 respectively.
The side friction factor (f) represents the contribution of the roadway-tyre
interface to counterbalance the centrifugal force of a vehicle traversing the
curve.
 EXAMPLE 3.4

Two tangent line meet at station 3200 +15.The radius of curvature is

360m, and the angle of deflection is 14°. Find the length of the curve,
the stations for P.C and P.T and all other relevant characteristics of
the curve. Figure 1 illustrates the case.

Figure 1
Solution:
L = (Δ/360)(2πR)
= (14/360)(2 x 3.142 x 360)
=87.98 m
L.C =2(360)Sin(14/2) =87.75 m
T =360 Tan (14/2) = 44.20 m
M =360 [1-Cos (14/2)] = 2.68 m
E =360 [ (1/Cos(14/2))-1] = 2.7m

The station of the P.I is given as 3200+15,

which indicates that i is 3215 m from the
beginning of the project.

P.C = P.I.-T
=3215-44.2
=3170.8 m
which is station 3100+70.8.

The station of the P.T. Is found as the P.C.+L.

P.T. = 3170.8+87.98
=3258.78 m
which is station 3200+58.78
3. Superelevation

• Superelevation is the tilting of the roadway in order to offset centrifugal

forces developed as a vehicle moves along a horizontal curve.

• The purpose of employing superelevation of the roadway cross section is

to counterbalance the centrifugal force, or outward pull, of a vehicle
traversing a horizontal curve.

• Side friction developed between the tires and the road surface also
counterbalances the outward pull of the vehicle.

• A combination of these two concepts allows a vehicle to negotiate curves

safely at higher speeds than would otherwise be possible.

https://youtu.be/WCWfrHZrP8c - animation superelevation

COMPULSORY TO WATCH!

https://youtu.be/WCWfrHZrP8c - animation superelevation

q TANGENT, CIRCULAR CURVE AND TRANSITION CURVE

Transition (spiral) Curve:

• The transition curve is also known as the spiral.

• The spiral is one of the alignment components. It is used to allow for a transitional
path from tangent to circular curve, and from circular curve to tangent, or from one
curve to another which has substantially different radii.

• The spiral provides for ease in operation and comfort, allowing for easy-to-follow
natural super-elevated transitional paths and promotes uniformity in speed and
increased safety.

• The use of a spiral may also enhance highway aesthetics.

 Transition (spiral) curve:

Circular curve

Spiral
Spiral CS
SC

Tangent
ST
TS
Tangent
Tangent runout = the length
of highway needed to
change the normal cross
section to the cross section
with the adverse crown
removed.
Superelevation runoff = the
length of highway needed to
change the cross section
with the adverse crown
removed to the cross
section fully superelevated.
Normal Tangent Superelevation Runoff Full Superelevation Superelevation Runoff Tangent Normal
Crown Runout Runout Crown

SC CS Outer edge

Inner edge

TS ST

Road Cross section

+2.5% +e% +e% +2.5%
0% 0%
-2.5% -2.5% -2.5% -2.5% -2.5%
-e% -e% -2.5% -2.5%
-2.5%

Normal Crown Adverse Remove Crown

Crown
Removed Superelevation Diagram
+e%

+2.5%
0% Outer edge

-2.5% Inner edge

-e%
 COMPONENT OF
SUPERELEVATION
4. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

• The vertical alignment controls how the road follows the existing terrain.

• Grades are connected with parabolic vertical curves calculated using the
stopping sight distance and grade difference.

• Roadway grades have a direct correlation with to the uniform operation of

vehicles.

• Vehicle weight and the steepness of the grade have a direct relationship on the
ability of the driver to maintain a uniform speed.

• Flatter grades should be used where possible.

Vertical alignment
 q VERTICAL CURVES

• Vertical curves are employed to effect gradual change between roadway

grades.
• Vertical curves should be simple in application and should result in a design
that is safe and comfortable in operation, pleasing in appearance, and adequate
for drainage.

Types of curves:
(1) Crest curve (2) Sag curve