CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Engineering surveys: is the surveys which are carried out for determination of quantities or to …
suffircient data for designing engineering works. Such as roads, reservoirs, sewage disposal and
water supply.
CONTROL SURVEY
Control surveys are basically used to reference both preliminary and layout. We have two
of such controls.
1. Horizontal control
horizontal control is the x and y coordinate of a point, this control can be placed
arbitrarily, but in most cases is usually tied directly to property lines, roadway center lines or
coordinated control station.
Horizontal controls, is used to fix the relative position at any engineering ( building, road,
railway e.t.c. ) on the horizontal plane and marked by pegs in the ground.
2. Vertical control
Vertical control is a series of bench marks whose elevation above mean sea level have
been carefully determined over a period of time (years).
 CHAPTER 2
ROUTE SURVEYS

It is not possible or practicable for a country, town or village to have straight railways or
highways. This impossibility is due to the nature of the terrain,cultural features or other
unavoidable reasons which their alignment require some changes in direction. However,reverse
curve is generally avoided during road design for the following reasons.
1. sudden change in direction is uncomfortable to the passengers.
2. there is no opportunity to raise the outer edge of the road or railway track as required for
compensating the centrifugal force.
3. the change of super elevation from one curve to another is sudden near the point of
reverse curvature.
Highway and railway routes are choisen only aftyer a complete and detailed syudy of all
possible locations has been completed. Fundamental planning and route selection usually involve
the use of aerial imagery, satellite imagery, and ground surveys as well as the analysis of existing
plans and maps. One route is chosen over the others because it satisfies all design requirements
with minimal social, environment and financial impact.
The proposed center line is laid out in a series of straight lines (tangents) beginning at 0 +
00 or 0 + 000 metric and continuing to the route terminal point. Each time the route changes
direction, the deflection angle between the back tangent and fore tangent is measured and
recorded. Natural and artificial features that could have an effect on the highway design is ….
Either by analogue surveys methods or using survey digital equipment such as GPS, total station
or the two methods could be combined together to fix details which lakes, trunks, structures and
any existing road or railroads in the neighbourhood of the new construction.
It is also the responsibility of the surveyor to determine el;evations along the proposed
route, in addition, determine elevation across the route width at right angles to the centre line at
regular intervals ( full stations, half stations, e.t.c.) and at locations dictated by changes in the
topography. The elevations observed aer used to aid in the design of horizontal and vertical
alignments. Th ecross section elevation are the basis parameter to calculate construction cut and
fill quantities.
The determination of elevations and detailing are normally considered to that relatively
narrow strip of land representing the highway right of way (ROW). Exceptions include potential
river, highway and rail road crossings where approach profiles and sight lines (rail roads ) may
have to be established.
CURVES
1. CIRCULAR CURVES.
Horizontal, circular or simple curves are curves of constant radius required to connect
two straights-outs on the ground. Such curves are required for road railways, kerblines, pipelines,
e.t.c. and may be ste out in several ways, depending on their length and radius./
 In the previous section above, we noted that a high way route survey was initially laid out
as series of straight lines (tangents). Once the center line location alighnment has been …. Th
etangents are jopined by circular curves that allow for smooth vertical operation at the speeds for
which the highway was designed.
DEFINITION OF CURVE ELEMENTS

The figure above shows two straights EP and PF, which intersect at P, the point of intersections.
If these straights are the set-out centre lines of proposed construction. The two tangents EP and
PF are joined by a circular curve and shows some related circular curve terminology.
= the angle of deflection or the angle of deviation of the curve.
O = the centre of the circle
L = the arc length of the curve from A to B
A = the first tangent point or T.P.1
B = the end tangent point or T.P.2
T = the tangent length = AP = PB. Point A and B are sometimes termed BC and EC, BC means
the beginning of the curve and EC, the end of the curve.
R = the radius of the curve
H = the crown or apex of the curve.
= the angle of deflection of the chord or the circumferential angle.
AB = the long chord or the chord to the curve at length C
AG = GH = KB are equal chords of length C, subtending equal arc length a.
HM = the height of the crown or the versed sine of the chord.
TYPES OF CURVES
i) SIMPLE CURVE: Is a curve that has a single arc of circle.
B

T1 T2

A O C
FIG II
ii) COMPOUND CURVE: A curve which consists of two or more arcs of different circles
with different radii having different centers lying on the same side of the common tangent.
A compound curve consists of two (usually) or more circular arcs between two main
tangents turning in the same direction and joining at common tangent points.

TANGENT
E F
R1

T1 R1 O1 T2
R2
O2

A C

iii) REVERSE CURVES: a curve which consists of two arc of different circles of the same
or different radii,. In such curves, the centers of the arcs turn in opposite direction with a
common tangent at the junction at the two arcs.

T2

O1 R1 T3 R2
R1 R2 O2
T1

Iv) TRANSITION CURVE: A curve of varying radius introduced between a straight and a
circular curve.
ELEMENTS OF A CURVE
1. back tangent. The tangent TI at T1 , the point of commencement of the curve
2. forward tangent. Is the tangent IT2 at T2 the end of the curve.
3. point of intersection.. the point I where back tangent when produced forward and the
forward tangent when produced backward meet is called the point of intersection.
4. angle of intersection. The angle between the back tangent IT, and forward tangent IT2 is
called the angle of intersection of the curve.
5. angle of deflection. The angle through which forward tangent deflects is called angle of
deflection of the curve. It may either be to the right or to the left.
6. point of commencement. The point T1 where the curve originates from the back tangent,
it is also known as point of the curve.
7. point of tangent. The point T2 where the curve joins the forward tangent.
8. deflection angle to any point on the curve. The angle between the back tangent and the
chord joining the point of the commencement to that point on the curve.
9. tangent distances: the distance between the point of intersection and point of
commencement of the curve, or the distance between the point of intersection and point of
tangency.
10. long chord: the chord joining the point of commencement and point of tangency.
11. mid-ordinate: the ordinate joining the mid popint of the curve and long chord
12. normal chord: a chord between two successive regular pegs an the curve.
13. sub-chord: when a chord is shorter than the normal chord. These sub chords are generally
occurs at the beginning and at the end of the curve.

CURVE FORMULAE

GEOMETRICS OF A CIRCLE
` A

T1 T2

O
(circle theory)
i. length of tengent of a circle = R tan
AT1 = AT2 = R tan
Where is the angle T1 OA = T2OA
ii. long chord T1T2 = 2R sin
iii. the angle subtended by any chord at the centre of the circle is twice the angle between the
chord and tangent.
< AT1B = ½ < T1OB
Let < AT1B =
Then < BT1O = 900 – = < T1BO
Angle T1OB subtended by the chord T1B at the centre O = 1800 – 2(900 – ) = 2
<AT1B = ½ T1OB
Q.E.D.
(a) tangent length
T = R tan ½
(b) arc length
L=R2 (
360
(c) deflection angle
Sin or minutes

Derivation of the formula

Let D0 be the angle subtended by an arc at 30m length of a circle whose radius is R.
The total circumference of a circle = 2
30m arc of the circumference makes an angle

D0 = 3600 x 30
2

10800 degrees or 1718.9

2 R

Relationship between the radius and degree of a curve

We all know that 1718.9 = D0 or R = 1718.9

R D0
For a 10 curve, the radius = 1718.9m
 What will be the design radius of 300 curve?
SETTING OUT OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE
A simple circular curve may be set out on the ground by any one of the following method.

A. there are different methods of setting out simple circular curve on the ground, which are
itemized below.
1. offsets from chord produced.
2. offsets from the long chord.
3. offsets from the tangents.
4. successive bisection of the chord.
5. deflection angles from the point of commencement or beginning of the curve and normal
chords.
6. deflection angles from the point of commencement or beginning of the curve and point of
tangency, using two theodolite.
The methods mentioned above are classified in two methods. 1- 4 are linear methods and
5 – 6 are angular methods.
7. coordinate method using total station.

B. deflection abgle from point of commencement or beginning of the curve (location of

tangent point). The tangent points should be located first on the ground before any curve can be
set out. For a particular pair of straights there is only one point on each straight for a curve of
given radius or degree to leave the first tangentially. These points are to be located by field
observation.

I Deflection Angle

Mid End of curve

A M ordinate ½ B

E F
To set out a curve, some data are needed to be calculated depending on the method to be used;
these data have been mentioned above with the formulae.
Following steps
i. set up the theodolite near A and extend straight towards P
ii. set up on the straight BF and produce it to meet the line at P.
N.B.: the theodolite is moved to some convenient point on the other straight and this line
is produced to meet the pencil line ruled on the profile board at P.
iii. mark the intersection of tangents at P
iv. measure angle EPF and obtain angle .
180 – EPF
v. calculate tangent length PA
T = R tan ½
vi. place pegs at A and B on the lines. From P, measure the lengths PA and PB = T and line
in the points A and B on the straight with the theodolite still set up at P.
vii. set up at A and measure angle PAB
viii. compute the chaining of the first straight A.

C Deflection angle from the point of commencement or beginning and locating point on the
curve.
Having pegged the tangent points as decriubed above. In this method the point on the
curve must be located. The interval between chainage pegs on the curve should be measured
along the actual arc. Chprd length should be strictly calculated as they are shorter than the arc
length, know fully well that the location of points on the curve depends on the accuracy of the
calculated chord length.
The first chord length on the curve may be shorter than the regular chord length which is c and
this is because the tangent point A will not accurately fall exactly at a peg interval.
(1) the center line has to be aligned or ranged by any appropriate method by p\egging at the
line takes place with pegs being placed along the line at continuous change at intervals of 20 or
25m. pegs are numbered in 100m units.
How to locate points on the curve
a. obtain the first chord length.
b. calculate for the chord length.
. calculate ’ for the first sub-chord.
d. calculate the final sub-chord and it’s ”
e. draw up a table of deflection angles to various units.

WORKING EXAMPLE
 Set out the curve that has deflection angle of 120 51’ radius of the curve is 400m,
chainage of point of intersection is 0 + 241.782
i. calculate the chainage of beginning of curve
ii. calculate the end curve.

PI
0 +241.782 120 51’

400m 400m

Solution
Calculate the tangent length
Tangent length formula = R tan ½
= 120 51’
½ = 60 25’ 30”
T = 400 tan 60 25’ 30” = 45.044m

Calculate the arc length

Formula = 2 R
360
L = 2 x 3.142 x 400 x 120 51’
3600
= 89.710
Chainage of beginning of curve

Remember chainage of intersection was given . tangent length has been calculated.
BC chainage = chainage of intersection – tangent length.
BC = 0 + 241.712 – 45.044
= 0 + 196.738
End curve chainage = beginning of curve (BC) + arc length (L)
EC = BC + L
= 0 + 196.738 + 89.710
 = 0 + 286.448
Calculate the deflection angles for these required arc distances to set out points on the curve.
Layout distance of the road is 20m interval the last chainage B.C is 0 + 1800 and next after BC is
0 + 200.
The difference between BC and chainage 0 + 200 is the first arc length.
Note all arc length must be even number of whole number except the first and last arc length on
the curve.
First arc length = 0 + 200 – 0 + 196.738
= 3.262m
Next arc length = 0 + 220, 0 + 240, 0 + 260, 0 + 280
Recall that EC chainage = 0 + 286.448
Last arc length = 0 + 286.448 – 0 + 280
= 0 + 6.448
PTS CHAINAGE CHORD LENGTH DEFLECTION < BEARING
BC 0 + 196.738 0
0 + 200 3.262 00 14’ 01” 00 14’ 01”
0
0 + 220 20 1 25’ 57” 10 39’ 58”
0 + 240 20 10 25’ 57” 30 05’ 55”
0 + 260 20 10 25’ 57” 40 31’ 52”
0
0 + 280 20 1 25’ 57” 50 57’ 49”
EC 0 + 286.448 6.448 00 27’ 43” 60 25’ 32”

CHORD CALCULATION
Curve can also be set out using chord distance which is more accurate.
In the previous example, the deflection angle for all the station has been calculated and with
chord distance for each of these station can also be calculated.
Chord distance formula = 2R sin deflection angle.
E.g. the first chord length = 2 x 400 x sin 00 14’ 01”
= 3.262m ( round 0ff to three decimals)
Even chord length or 2nd chord lengths
= 2 x 400 x sin 10 25’ 57”
= 19.999m
Last chord length = 2 x 400 x sin 00 27’ 43”
= 6.450m.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DEGREE OF CURVE AND THE CIRCLE

D
 R R
C=2

Arc = L =
2 360

L= 2R
360
Where is expressed in degrees and decimal of degrees.

Highway engineer or agencies use the concept of degree of curve (D) to define the sharpness of
curve; the sharpness of any curve is determined by the length or magnitude of the radius. Large
radius curves are relatively flat. Whereas small radius curves are relatively sharp.
What is degree of curve?
Degree of curve is defined as that central angle subtended by 100ft of arc (30.48)m.
D is defined as that central angle subtended be 100ft (30.48) of chord in railway design
In figure above.

D = 100 ft or 30.48m _____________ (i)

360 2R 2R

30.48 x 360
2x 3.142 R

D = 5729.58 ft or 1746.149 m _________ (ii)

R R

Sin ½ D = PM
OP
Sin ½ D’’ = 15.24
R
R = 15.24
Sin ½ D
D = 15.24
R
R = 15.24
 D/2
Recall arc
Arc = L =
2 360

R = 360L
2
R = 15.24 x 360 = 15.24 x 360
0
2 3.142 x D
2
R = 1746.149m
D0
Similar D
L =
100 D

L = 100 ( )

Example
A road to be designed as the following deflection angle 110 210 35’’ chainage of point of
intersection is 453.338 and degree at curve is 60. Calculate the station or chainage at
commencement of curve and end of curve.

PI
0 + 453.338 = 110 21’ 36’’

BC EC
11 21’ 35’’

,. 60

Solution
Tangent length = R tan ½

R = 1746.376
 D
R = 1746.376 = 291.063m
6

T = 291.063 tan 50 40’ 48’’

= 28.949m

Arc length (L) = 30.48 ( )

= 30.48 x 110 21’ 36’’
6

= 57.709m

Commencement of curve
BC = 0 + 453.338 – 28.949
= 0 + 424.389
EC = BC + arc length
= 0 + 424.389 + 57.709
= 0 + 482.098m
Example
Two straight intersect at chainage 2 + 540.44 and the angle of intersection is 1200.. if the radius
of the simple curve to be introduced is 600m. find the following.
i. Tangent distances.
ii. Chainage of the points of beginning of curve.
iii. Chainage of the point of tangency.]
iv. Length of the long chord.

PI = 600

1200
BC

EL
600
600

A
Solution
Tangent = R tan ½
Arc L = 2R
360

Note: angle of intersection is 1200

Angle of deflection = 1800 - 1200 = 600
Chord length = 2R sin
R = 600m
PI chainage = 2 + 540.44

i. T = 600 tan 300

= 346.41m
Arc length (L) = 2 x 3.142 x 600 x 60
360
= 628.4

ii. Beginning of curve chainage

BC = 2 + 540.44 – 346.41
= 2 + 194.03

iii. E.C of point of tangency = chainage B.C + arc length

= 2 + 194.03 + 628.4
= 2 + 822.43
=

iv. Long chord = 2 + 600 x sin 300

= 1200 x ½
= 600m.

HOME WORK
Two tangents intersect at chainage 1 + 250m and deflection angle is 380. Calculate all the data
necessary for setting out a curve within a radius of 300m by deflection angle method. Peg
interval is 25m.
Offsets from the long chord

E L
oy
K
T1 N x D T2

R C R

Let T1 and T2 be the points of beginning and end of the curve. Radius of the curve is R having O
as centre.
Construction. Join T1T2. Divide T1T2 at D. join ID which intersects the curve at B. the maximum
length of the offset from the long chord T1T2 is BD, whose value may be calculated fro, DT1DO
R2 = ( L/2)2 + ( OB – BD)2
L is the length of the long chord.
R2 = ( L/2)2 + ( R – OX)2
Or ( R - OX )2 = R2 – (L/2)2

√
R - OX = R2 – (L/2)2

To find the ordinate OY at any point N at a distance x from mid point D, drop EL perpendicular
to BD
OY = EN = LD +LO = OD

OY = LO – (R – OX)
From ELO

√
LO = OE2 – EL2
 = √ R2 – x 2
Substituting the value of LO is

OY = √ R2 – x2 – (R – OX)
Where Ox is the mid ordinate of the long chord.

Field operation: to set out a circular curve with offset from the long chord.
1. Erect ranging rods at T1 D and T2
2. Divide the long chord T1 T2 in equal parts of suitable length.
3. Calculate the lengths of the offsets corresponding to distances from mid points of the
chord.
4. Erect perpendiculars with the help of an optical square and measure the calculated offset
length.

Example
Two roads meet at an angle of 1270 30’ calculate the necessary data for setting out a curve of 15.
Chains radius to connect the two straight portions of the road if it is intended to set out the curve
by chain and offset only.
Assume the length of chain as 20 meters.

B = 520 30’
1270 30’

T2
T1

R = 15CH
A C

O
The length of the radius = 15 + 20 = 300m
Angle of deflection = 1800 - 1270 30’ = 520 30’
Tangent length = 300 tan 260 150
= 147.94m
Calculation of offsets
a. Radial offsets:
From our equation

O0 = √ R2 + x2 – R

O20 = √ 3002 + 202 – 300 = 300.67 – 300 = 0.67m

O40 = √ 3002 + 402 – 300 = 302.655 – 300 = 2.655m

O60 = √ 3002 + 602 – 300 = 305.941 – 300 = 5.941m

O80 = √ 3002 + 802 – 300 = 310.483 – 300 = 10.483m

O100 = √ 3002 + 1002 – 300 = 316.228 – 300 = 16.228m

O120 = √ 3002 + 1202 – 300 = 323.110 – 300 = 23.110m

O140 = √ 3002 + 1402 – 300 = 331.059 – 300 = 31.059m

O147.94 = √ 3002 + 147.942 – 300 = 334.494 – 300 = 34.494m

Other half of the curve may be set out from the second tangent
b. Perpendicular offsets: (exact)

0 = R – √ R2 – x2

√
O20 = 300 – 3002 – 202 = 300 – 299.33 = 0.67m

√
O40 = 300 – 3002 – 402 = 300 – 297.321 = 2.678m

√
O60 = 300 – 3002 – 602 = 300 – 293.939 = 6.061m

√
O80 = 300 – 3002 – 802 = 300 – 289.137 = 10.863m
 √
O100 = 300 – 3002 – 1002 = 300 – 282.843 = 17.157m

√
O120 = 300 – 3002 – 1202 = 300 – 274.955 = 25.045m

√
O140 = 300 – 3002 – 1402 = 300 – 265.330 = 34.670m

√
O147.94 = 300 – 3002 – 147.942 = 300 – 260.986 = 39.014m

Chord length = R sin ½

= 300 x sin 260 15’
= 300 x 0.442288 = 132.687

VERTICAL CIRCLE
Where two quadrants intersect, it is necessary to smooth out the profile so that there is a gradual
change from one quadrant to another.
On hills such vertical curves are known as summit curves and in valleys they are knowm
as valley curves or sags.
While crossing low ridges or valleys, the railways and highways face a change of
gradients. In case of a ridge, a rising gradient ( i.e. up gradient) is followed up to highest point,
the summit and then a down gradient is followed on the other side of the ridge. In case of a
valley, a down gradient is followed by an up-gradient.
The curve normally adopted for vertical curves is the simple parabola which has the
equation
y = mx2
where y is the offset from the tangent at a distance x along it from the tangent and m is any
suitable constant.
Proof the general equation of a parabola having vertical axis is
Y = ax2 + bx + c
The slope of the curve
dy/dx = 2ax + b
the rate of change of grade or slope
d2y/dx2 = 2a
slope at the origin is a1, the expression for the slope of the curve at any point becomes
dy/dx = slope = 2ax + a1

NOTE: as the right hand side of the las equation does not contain any variable, it si proved that
the rate of grade along a vertical parabola is always uniform.
The grade

The gradient or grade may be defined as a proportional rise or fall between two points along a
straight line. It is expressed either as a percentage or ratio.

1. As a percentage (%). Vertical rise or fal per ………. Horizontal e.g. 1%, 2%, 6% e.t.c.
2. As a ratio. One vertical rise or fall in n horizontals e.g. 1 in 200, 1 in 300 e.t.c.

There are two categories of grade

a. Up grades or positive grades: a grade is up grade when the elevations along it increase.
b. Down grades or negative grades: a grade is down grade when the elevations decreases.
The categories of grade depend upon the direction of the movement of the vehicle.

Length of vertical curves

The two principal factors governing the length of vertical curves are:
a. The centrifugal effect caused by the rate of change in the gradient. The larger the grade
angle, the
greater must the length be to reduce the rate of change of gradient.
A standard minimum radius of 1000m is used on vertical curves to prevent discomfort from the
centrifugal force.
The horizontal distance from beginning to end of a parabolic vertical curve of this minimum
radius is ten times the gradient angle as a percentage.
b. Sight or vision distances needed for vehicles to give them time to stop on seeing
obstruction over
the brow of a summit curve. Sight distances an ane-way dual carriage ways need be less than on
two way roads wher vehicles are approaching each other at speed.
Sight distance depend on the following factors.
i. The speed of vehicles.
ii. The thinking distances, i.e. the distance travelled during the time of a driver’s
reaction, usually one second.
iii. Stopping distance, which depends on the road surface and breaking efficiency.
iv. The height of the eye above the road, usually taken to be 1.1m. in sports cars, the eye
height is obviously less than 1.1m but this is compensated for the greater braking
efficiency.
v. A safety margin added to the calculated sight distance.

Curve length and sight distance

Where the grade angle or speed are low, the length of the vertical curve needed is often less than
the sight distance. As speeds or the grade angle increases until the rate of change of gradient
becomes the ruling factor and curve lengths become longer than is necessary for sight only.

TYPES OF VERTICAL CURVES

1. An up-grade( +g1%) followed by a downgrade (-g2%)

B1
+g1% +g2%

A C

2. A down grade (+g1%) followed by another up- grade ( +g2)

A B C

-g1% +g2%

3. An up-grade( +q1%) followed by another up-grade (+q2%) q2 > q1

+g2%
B

B1

A -g1%

4. An up-grade( +g1%) followed by another up-grade (+g1) g1 > g2

C
+g2%
 B1

+g1% B

5. A down grade (-g1%) followed by another down- grade ( -g2%) g2 > g1

A -g1%
B

B1 -g1%

6. A down grade (-g1%) followed by another down- grade ( -g2%) g1 > g2

-g% B

B1
-g% C

Length of vertical curves

The length of a vertical may be defined as the length from the beginning of the curve i.e. the
point of rising to the tangency of the curve. i.e. the point where curve meets horizontal straight.
Let L1 be the length of the curve from the point of beginning of the curve to summit; g1% be the
up-grade; r be the rate of change of grade.

L1 = percentage of up-grade = g1
Rate of change of grade r

Also the length of the curve from the summit to the end of the curvr

L2 = percentage of down-grade = g2
Rate of change of grade r

total length of the vertical curve

L= g1 + g2
r r

remember upgrades are treated positive and downgrades negative

L = q1/r – (-q2)
r

example:

calculate the length of a vertical curve if an up-grade q1 = 1.4% is followed by a down grade q2
0.6% and the rate of change of grade, is recommended as 0.1% per 20m chain.

Solution

L = g1 – g2
r

1.4 – (– 0.6) = 20
0.1

20 + 20 = 400m

VERTICAL CUIRVES TERMINOLOGY

1. BVC = beginning of the vertical curve
 2. EVC = end of vertical curve
3. PVI = point of intersection of the two adjacent grade lines.
4. L = the length of vertical curve is the project of the curve onto a horizontal surface.

PVI

g1% g2%
BVC EVC

0 + 00 L

Geometric properties of the parabola

L E1

A = g2 – g1
x V
ax2
a1x
m
BVC
c E
EVC
a1 a2
1. The difference in elevation between BVC and a point on the q1 grade line at a distance x
units ( feet or meter) is q1x.
2. The tangent offset between the grade line and the curve is given by ax3, where x is the
horizontal distance from the BVC; that is tangent offsets are proportional to the squares
of the horizontal distances.
3. The elevation of the curve at distance x from the BVC is given by BVC + qix – ax2 =
curve elevation ( the signs would be reserved in a sag curve).
4. The grade lines ( q1 q2 ) intersect midway between the BVC and the EVC that is BVC to

V=½L = V to EVC
5. Offsets from the two grade lines are symmetrical with respect to the PV1 (V)
6. The curve lies midway between the PV1 and the midpoint of the chord that is
Cm = mV

PROCEDURE FOR COMPUTING A VERTICAL CURVE

1. Compute the algebraic difference in grades A = q2 – q1

2. Compute the chainage of the BVC and EVC. If the chainage of the PV! Is known, ½ L is
simply subtracted and added to the PV1 chainage.
3. Compute the distance from the BVC to the high or low point. Determine the station of the
high or low point.
4. Compute the tangent grade line elevation of BVC and the EVC
5. Compute the tangent grade line elevation for each required station.
6. Compute the mid point of the chord elevation

Elevation o BVC + elevation of EVC

2

7. Compute the tangent offsets (d) AT THE pv1 that is Vm

d = difference in elevation PV1 and mid point of chord

2

8. Compute the tangent offset for each individual station (see line ax2 in figure above)
9. Compute the elevation on the curve at each required station by combining the tangent
offsets with appropriate tangent gradient elevation.
 Computation of the high or low point on a vertical curve

BVC

Low point

EVC

Tangent through low point

PVI

The location of curve high and low points are important for drainage consideration; FOR
example on curbed streets, catch basins must be installed precisely at the drainage low
point.
Recall slope equation
Slope = 2ax + g1
Fig above shows a sag vertical curve with a tangent line is horizontal with a slope of zero.
2ax + g1 = O
Had a crust curve been drawn, the tangent through the high point would have exhibited
the same characteristics.
Because 2a = A/ L
Substitute for 2A in the above equation
i.e. 2ax + g1 = 0
A x + g1 = 0
L
A x = -g1
L
x = -g1 (A/L)
where x is the distance from the BVC to the high or low point.
Example
Given that L a curve have a vertical distance of 120m, down grade of 3.2% and up grade of 1.8%
and point of verticsl intersection chainage is 0 + 922.533 with elevation of 500.25. compute the
location of the low point, even station elevations and elevation of the low point
Solution
1. A = 1.8 – (-3.2) = 5

2. PV1 – ½ L = BVC
 BVC = 1 + 000 – 50 0 + 940.00
PVI + ½ L = EVC
EVC = 1 + 0000 + 0 + 60 = 1 + 060
Check
EVC – BVC = L
L = (1 + 060) – (0 + 940) =120

3. Elevation of PV1 = 500.25

60m at 3.2 % = 1.92

STATION TANGENT TANGENT CURVE

ELEVATION ELEVATION
BVC 0 + 940 502.170 ( 0/60)2 x 0.750 = 0 502.170
0 + 960 501.530 (20/60)2 x 0.750 = 501.611
0.081
0 + 980 500.890 (40/60)2 x 0.750 = 501.214
0.324
PVC 1 + 000 500.25 (60/60)2 x 0.750 = 501.000
0.750
Low point
1 + 0168 500.552 (43.2/60)2 x 0.750 = 500.940
0.388
1 + 020 500.610 (40/60)2 x 0.750 = 500.943
0.333
1 + 040 500.970 (20/60)2 x 0.750 = 501.05
0.083
EVC 1 + 060 501.33 (0/60)2 x 0.750 = 0 501.333

Let’s calculate the constant K

Elevation of BVC = PV1 + total difference in elevation
= 500.25 + 1.92 = 502.170
Elevation of EVC = PV1 + rise in elevation
Rise elevation = 60 x 1.8% = 1.00
EVC elevation = 500.25 + 1.08
= 501.25

4. mid chord elevation

BVC elevation + EVC elevation
2

5. tangent offset at PV1 (d)

d = difference in elevation of PV1 and midchord
 2
= 501.75 – 500.25 = 1.5
2 2
d = 0.750
6. tangent offset are computed by multiplying the distance ratio squared (x L/2)2 by the
maximum tangent offset.
7. curve elevation = tangent elevation + tangent offset
8. tangent elevation = 1.92 x offset distance
60
= 1.92 x 20
60
= 0.64
Elevation of chainage of 960 = 502.170 – 0.64 =
9. location of low point calculatd using this formular

X = g1 x L = 3.2 x 120 = 76.8

g1 + g2 5
chainage low point from BVC = BVC chainage + distance of low point from BVC
= 0 + 940 + 0 + 76.8 = 1 + 016.8
Parabolic curve elevation computed directly from the equation.
We can equally compute the vertical curve elevation directly from the general equation
y = ax2 + bx + c

where y = elevation on the curve at distance x from BVC

a = (g2 – g1) / 2L
L = horizontal length of vertical curve
x = horizontal distance from BVC
b = g1
c = elevation at BVC

a= 1.8 - - 3.2 2 + 120

100

a= 0.05 = 0.00021
240
L= 120
b= -3.2% = -0.032
c = 502.170
table ii
parabolic curve elevation from the equation y = ax2 + bx + c

STATION DISTANCE ax2 bx c y ( elevation

FROM BVC on the curve)
BVC 0 + 940 0 0 0 0 502.170
0 + 960 20 0.084 -0.64 502.170 501.611
0 + 980 40 0.32 -1.280 502.170 501.210
PVC 1 + 000 60 0.756 -1.920 501.006
COW 1+ 76.8 1.227 -2.458 500.939
016.8
1 + 020 80 1.331 -2.560 500.941
1 + 040 100 2.08 -3.200 501.055
EVC 1 + 060 120 3.024 -3.84 501.33

TRANSITION CURVES

A non circular curve introduced between a straight and a circular curve, is known as a transition
curve. The curvature of such curves varies from zero at it’s junction with the circular curve.

Advantages of transition curve

1. it enables the introduction of super elevation in proportion to the rate of change of
curvature.
2. it avoids the danger of derailment at the point of beginning of the curve if full amount of
super elevation is suddenly applied at the point.
3. it avoids over turning and side slipping of the moving vehicles.
4. it eliminates discomforts caused to the passengers while negotiating a curve.

TYPES OF TRANSITION CURVES

1. CUBICAL SPIRAL
2. CUBICAL PARABOLA
3. the laemniscale curve

The first two types are best suited to railway curves and lemniscate for highway curves
1. cubical spiral. The standard equation of a cubical spiral is given by
X = l2
6RL
where
L = total length of the transition curve
R = radius of the circular curve
l = distance measured along the curve
x = perpendicular offset from the tangent.

T2

2. cubic parabola. The standard equation of a cubic parabola

X = y3
6RL
Where
x = perpendicular offset from the tangent.
y = distance measured along the tangent
R = radius of the circular curve
L = length of the transition curve

Y
T2

L
3. the lamniscate curve. The standard equation of lamniscate curve
r = p
3 sin 2α
Where
r = radius of the curvature
p = polar ray of any point.
α = polar deflection angle i.e. angle between the polar ray and the straight

length of transition curves

the transition curve is introduced between a straight and a circular curve in order to introduce
super elevation gradually from zero at the point of beginning of the transition curve and the full
amount of the junction of transition curve and the circular curve. The length of the transition
curve may be calculated from one of the following consideration
1. definite rate of super elevation: keeping in view the type of moving vehicles, the length
of the transition curve may be calculated by assuming a definite rate of super elevation say 1 in
300 to 1 in 500

If h is the amount of super elevation in centimeters

1 in n the rate of super elevation over the transition curve.
L is the length of the transistion curve in meters

D = n x h meters
100

Example
Calculate the length of a transition curve to be introduced between a straight and a curve such
that 15cm super elevation may be introduced over a circular curve. Assume the rate of super
elevation as 1 in 500.

Solution
L = n x h
100
n = 500, h = 15cm

L = 500 x 15 = 75m
100

2. arbitrary rate of super elevtion in centimeters per second.

3. definite rate of change of radial acceleration say 30 cm/sec2
4. the length of the transition curve, may be arbitrarily assumed say 100m, 120m, 140m
e.t.c.

Assignment
1. what are the requirements of an ideal transition curve.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSITION CURVES

The transition curves are introduced at both the ends of a circular curve by shifting the main
curve inwards. The various components of transition curve should be understudied by an
engineer before designing transition curve and to calculate the necessary data for the setting out

K ∆

D
S
F t2
t1 G E
Φ T2
B
N
T2 ∆-2Φ

A θ θ C

O
Let AK and KC be two straights
D1 the angle of deflection.
t1 t2 the points of tangencies of the original curve
T1 T2 the points of tangencies of transition curve
E, F, the junction points of the transition curves with the circular curve
R the radius of the circular curve
S the shift of the circular curve
EN the tangent at E meeting back tangent AK at N Φ the spiral angle.
O the centre of the main circular curve.
1. the spiral angle. The angle between the back tangent at the junction of the transition curve
with the circular curve.

From ∆ EMO
MOE = 900 – MEO
= MEN = END = Φ

2. shift. The distance through which main circular curve is shifted inward to accomocate the
transition curve.

S = L2
24R

3. the tangent length of the combined curve

Total tangent length = T1K = T1t1 + t1K

But t1K = (R + S) tan ∆ and T1t1 = L

2 2

total tangent length = = (R + S) tan ∆ + L

2 2
4. length of the combined curve

The central angle for the circular curve = ∆ - 2 Φ

The length of the circular curve = T1R (∆ - 2 Φ)

1800
total length of the combined curve
= L + length of the circular curve + L
= T1R (∆ - 2 Φ) + 2L
1800

5. chainage of main points of the curve.

1) the chainage at the point of beginning (T1) of the combined curve.

= the chainage at the point of intersection (K) – total tangent length.
2) the chainage at the first junction point (E)
= chainage at point of beginning (T1) + length of the transition curve (L)
 3) the chainage at the second junction point (F)
= chainage of the first junction point (E) + length of the circular curve.
4) the chainage at the point of tangency (T2)
= chainage of the second junction point (F) + length of the transition curve
(L)

Example
Two straights AB and BC intersect at the chainage 1545.33m, the deflection angle being 38024’.
It is proposed to intersect a circular curve of 250m radius with two transition curves 60m long at
each end. Calculate the shift, the spiral angle of the transition curve and the chainage at point of
beginning

Solution
L = 60m length of the transition curve
R = 250, radius of the curve
∆ = 1543.33
i. shift = 602 = 0.6m
250 x 24

ii. spiral angle Φ = L = 60

2R 2 + 250

= 1800L = 60 x 180
2ᴨR 2 x 3.142 x 250

= 60 52’ 21”
iii. total tangent length of the combined curve
= ( 250 + 0.60) tan 190 12’ + 30

= 87.268 + 30

= 117.268m
iv. chainage at the point of beginning = chainage at the point of intersection – the length of
total tangent
1545.33 – 117.268 = 1428.062m

SUPER ELEVATION
When a vehicle travels too fast on a horizontal curve, the vehicle may move from a
straight to a curve, it is acted upon by centrifugal force in addition to it’s own weight. The
centrifugal force acts through the centre of gravity horizontally away from the center of the curve
and tends to push the vehicle off track. The factors that cause this phenomenon are based on the
radius of curvature and velocity of the vehicle, the sharper the curve and the faster the velocity,
the larger the centrifugal force requirement
Two factors help to stabilize the radius and velocity factors.

1. side friction which is always present to some degree the vehicle tires and the pavement.
2. super elevation which is a banking of the pavement toward the center of the curve
Or
The difference in the top levels of outer and inner rails. Super elevation depends upon the
radius of the curve and the speed of the vehicles. As all the vehicles do not run with the same
speed the average of the fastest and slowest speeds of the vehicles is used for the purpose of
calculation of the required amount of super elevation.

COMPOUND CURVE

i θ

K θ1 θ2 L
t1 t2
T1 T2
θ1
RS θ2 RL
O1

A O2 B

Geometrics of a compound curve

Two centered compound curve
Two straight Ai and Bi intersect at l when produced, I is the point of intersection. A two
centered compound curve T1CT 2 is inserted between them. Two circular arcs T1C and CT2 have
O1 and O2 as their centres. T1 and T2 are the point of beginning and point of tangency of the
curve respectively.
The essential components of a compound curve
θ = total deflection angle
θ1 = deflection angle 1KL
θ2 = deflection angle 1CK
RS = radius of arc (small) T1C
RL = radius of arc (large) T2C
TS = total tangent length ( small) T1 l
TL = total tangent length (large) T2L
Angle T1O1C = 1800 – angle T1KL = θ1
Angle CO2T2 = 1800 – angle CO2T2 = θ2
T1K = KC = t1
CL = LT2 = t2
KL = T1 + t2
Using sine rule to ∆1KL
Ki = iL = KL
Sin θ2 Sin θ1 sin (1800 – θ)

Ki = KL x Sin θ2 = (t1 + t2) Sin θ2

Sin θ Sin θ

iL = KL x Sin θ1 = (t1 + t2) Sin θ1

Sin θ Sin θ

Total tangent length of small arc

TS = T1K + K1
= t1 + (t1 + t2) sin θ2
Sin θ
Total tangent length of large arc (TL)
TL = T2L + L1
= t2 + ( t1 + t2) sin θ1
Sin θ

Relationships between different parts of a compound curve

There are seven different parts of a two centered compound curve i.e. θ, θ1, θ2, TS, TC, RS, and
RL. if any four of these quantities including at least one angle are known, the remaining
quantities may be calculated. There are two ways or methods of calculating deflection angle
between the straight.
1. can be calculated from their given bearing
2. measured in the field.
Tangent lengths RS and RL are estimated from the layout plan.
The fourth quantity out of θ1, θ2, TS and TC is determined from the plan according to the
requirement.
The remaining quantities can be calculated as follows.
1. given θ, RS, RC, θ2 or θ1
Calculate : TS, TC, θ2 or θ1
θ2 = θ - θ1
 θ2 = θ - θ1
substituting the values in equation (i) and (ii)
TS = RS tan θ1 + RS tan θ1 + RL tan θ2 sin θ2 …………. iii
2 2 2 sin θ

TL = RL tan θ2 + RS tan θ1 + RS tan θ2 sin θ2 ………... iv

2 2 2 sin θ