HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II

CHAPTER TWO
STRESSES IN PAVEMENT

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Contents:
 Stress in flexible pavements
2.1 Stress in Homogeneous mass
2.1.1 Solutions by charts
2.1.2 Solutions at Axis of Symmetry
2.2 Stress in a layered system
2.2.1 Two layer system
2.2.2 Three layer systems

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 The response of a pavement structure to traffic loading is

mechanistically modeled by computing stresses and strains within its
layers.
 Excessive stresses may cause pavement fatigue cracking and/or surface
rutting which may result in both structural and functional failure.
 These failure distresses are minimized among others by use of effective
balanced pavement designs.
 Pavement stress-strain analysis constitutes an integral part of
pavement design and performance evaluation.

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 Although pavement structures are layered structures, we start with a discussion of the stresses
in a homogeneous half space.

 Originally Boussinesq developed his equations for a point load but later on the equations
were extended for circular wheel loads.

 The simplest way to characterize the behavior of pavement under wheel loads is to consider the
sub grade, the sub base and the surfacing layers to form a homogeneous half space.

 A half-space has an infinitely large area and an infinite depth with a top plane on which the
loads are applied.

 If the modulus ratio between the pavement and the sub grade is close to unity, as exemplified
by a thin granular base, the Boussinesq theory can be applied to determine the stresses, strains
and deflection in the sub grade.

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 Boussinesq assumptions:
 Soil is ideal mass
 Soil are homogenous
 Poisson’s ratio is constant in all
direction, and E is constant
 Soil is Isotropic, that mean 𝝈𝒙 = 𝝈𝝉

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 2.1.1 Solutions by charts
 Figure 2-1 below shows a homogeneous half-space
subjected to a circular load with a radius a and a uniform
pressure q.
 The half-space has an elastic modulus E and a Poisson ratio,
v.
 A small cylindrical element with center at a distance z below
the surface and r from the axis of symmetry is shown.
 At any point, 9 stresses exist. They are 3 normal stresses(σz,
σr, σt) and 6 shearing Stresses (τrz =τzr;τrt =τtr; τtz =τzt)
 At each point in the system there exist a certain orientation
of the element such that the shearing stresses acting on each
face are zero.
 Due to a axisymmetric, there are only three normal stresses,
σz, σr, σt, and one shear stress, τrz, which is equal to τzr.
 These stresses are functions of q, r/a, and z/a.

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 2.1.1 Solutions by Charts

 Foster and Ahlvin has developed charts as provided here from

Figure 2-2 to Figure 2-6 (assuming the half space is
incompressible with a Poisson ratio of 0.5.) for determining
 Vertical stress σz,
 Radial stress σr,
 Tangential stress σt,
 Shear stress τrz, and
 Vertical deflection w.

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 Figure 2-2: Vertical stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

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 Figure 2-3: Tangential stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin,
1954)

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 Figure 2-4: Radial stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

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 Figure 2-5: Shear stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

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 Figure 2-6: Vertical deflection due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin,
1954)

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 After the stresses are obtained from charts, the strains can

be computed from

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 If the contact area consists of two circles, the stresses

and strains can be computed by superposition.

 When the wheel load is applied over a single contact

area, the most critical stress, strain, and deflection

occur under the center of the circular area are on the
axis of symmetry, where τrz=0 and σt= σr, so σz and σt
are the principal stresses.

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2.1.2 Solutions at Axis of Symmetry

 The stresses, strain, and deflection on the axis of symmetry of a wheel load
applied to a pavement (similar to a load applied to flexible plate) with radius a
and a uniform pressure q, for points on the centerline of the load (i.e., r = 0) can
be computed by:

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Flexible and Rigid Plates Loading

 If the load is applied on a rigid plate such as that used in plate loading
test, the deflection is the same at all points on the plate, but the
pressure distribution under the plate is not uniform and is expressed
as:

Where
r = the distance from the center point where the pressure is to be determined
q = the average pressure which is equal to the load divided by the area.

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 Flexible Plate:  Rigid Plate:
 Uniform contact pressure  Non-uniform contact pressure
 Equal deflection
 Variable deflection profile

• Surface deflection under a rigid plate is

only 79% of that under the center of a
uniformly distributed load (flexible
plate).
HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements Figure 2.7. Differences between flexible and rigid plates.
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 With these assumptions, Bousinesq theory has the

following drawbacks:

1. Flexible pavements are multilayered structures with each layer

having its own modulus of elasticity.
2. The pavement layer and the sub grade soil are not perfectly
elastic.
3. The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may not be
true.

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Example-1
 Figure 2.8 shows a homogeneous half-space subjected to
two circular loads, each 10 in.(254 mm) in diameter and
spaced at 20 in.(508 mm) on centers. The pressure on the
circular area is 50 psi (345 kPa (1 psi=6.9 kPa). The half-
space has elastic modulus 10,000 psi (69 MPa) and
Poisson’s ratio 0.5.
 Determine the vertical stress, strain,
and deflection at point A, which
is located 10 in.(254 mm) below
the center of one circle.
Figures 2.8. Example 1.

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Solution:
From Figures 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4, the stresses at point A:
A. Due to the left load with r/a = 0 and z/a = 10/5 = 2, q=50 psi are:
σ𝑧 σ
 ∗ 100 = 28 ≫ 𝑧 = 0.28
𝑞 𝑞
σ𝑧 = 0.28 × 50 = 14.0 psi (96 .6 kPa), and
σ𝑟 σ
 ∗ 100 = 1.6 ≫ 𝑧 = 0.016
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞𝑎
σr = σt = 0.016 × 50 = 0.8 psi (5 .5 kPa) ; 𝑤= 𝐹
𝐸
B. Due to the right load with r/a = 20/5 = 4 and z/a = 2 are:
 σz = 0.0076 × 50 = 0.38 psi (2 .6 kPa), Strain
 σr=0.026 × 50 =1.3 psi (9.0 kPa), and • ε𝑧 = [14 .38 - 0 .5(2.10+ 0.8)/10,000 = 0.00129.
 σt = 0. (Out of the right load’s range). • From Figure 2.6, the deflection factor at point A
due to the left load is 0 .68 and, due to the right load is
C. By superposition: 0.21 .
 σz = 14.0 + 0 .38 =14 .38 psi (99.2 kPa), • The total deflection w = (0 .68+0.21) × 50 ×5/10,000
 σr= 0.8+1.3 = 2 .10 psi (14 .5 kPa) , and w = 0 .022 in . (0.56 mm) .
The final answer is
 σt = 0.8 psi (5.5 kPa).
• σ𝑧 = 14.38 psi (99 .2 kPa),
• ε𝑧 = 0.00129, and
• w = 0.022 in . (0.56 mm),
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 In actual case, flexible pavements are layered systems

with better materials on the top and cannot be
represented by a homogeneous mass.
 Various multilayer theories for estimating stresses and
deflection have been proposed.
 However, basic theories that utilize assumptions close
to actual conditions in flexible pavement are those
proposed by Burmister.

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2.2.1 Stresses in Two-layer system

 Burmister first developed solutions for two-layer system and then extended them to a three-
layer system with the following assumptions:

 Each layer is homogeneous, isotropic and linearly elastic with elastic modulus, E,
and Poisson’s ratio, v.

 The material is weightless and infinite in lateral directions, but of finite depth, h,
whereas the underlying layer is infinite in both the horizontal and vertical directions.

 A uniform pressure q is applied on the surface over a circular area of radius a.

 The layers are in continuous contact and continuity conditions are satisfied at the layer interfaces,
as indicated by the same vertical stresses, shear stresses, vertical displacement and
radial displacement. For frictionless interface, the continuity of shear stress and radial
displacement is replaced by zero shear stress at each side of the interface.

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 The exact case of a two layer system is the full depth asphalt
pavement construction in which a thick layer of hot-mix asphalt
is placed directly on the sub grade.
 If the pavement is composed of three layers (e.g., surface course,
base course and sub grade) the stresses and strains in the
surface layer can be computed by combining the base course
and the sub grade into a single layer.
 Similarly the stresses and strains in the sub grade can be
computed by combining the surface course and the base course.

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 Vertical Stress: - the stresses in a two layer system depends on

modulus ratio E1/E2 and the thickness radius ratio h1/a.

 Figure 2-9 shows the effect of pavement layer on the distribution

of vertical stress under the center of the circular loaded area

when h1/a = 1 and v = 0.5.

 Figure 2-10 shows the effect of pavement thickness and modulus

ratio on vertical stresses, σc, at the pavement-sub grade interface.

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 Figure 2-9 shows the effect of pavement layer on the distribution of vertical
stress under the center of the circular loaded area when h1/a = 1 and v = 0.5.

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 Figure 2-10 shows the effect of pavement thickness and modulus ratio on
vertical stresses, σc, at the pavement-sub grade interface.

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 Deflection: - Surface and interface deflection have been used as

criteria for pavement design.

 The surface deflection under a uniformly circular loaded area is

given in terms of the defection factor F2 (Figure 2-10) as:

 The interface deflection between the two layers is expressed in

terms of deflection factor F (Figure 2-11 & 2-12) as:

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 Figure 2-11: Vertical surface deflection factor for two layer system.
(Burmister, 1943)

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Figure 2-12 as a function of E1/E2, h1/a, and r/a, where r is the radial distance
from the center of loaded area. (E1/E2=2.5 and E1/E2=5.)

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 Figure 2-12: Vertical interface deflection factor for two layer system,
(E1/E2=10, E1/E2=25), (Haung, 1969)

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 Figure 2-12: Vertical interface deflection factor for two layer system,
(E1/E2=50, E1/E2=100). (Haung, 1969)

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 Critical tensile strain: - The tensile strains at the bottom of the

asphalt layer have been used as design criteria to prevent fatigue
cracking.
 The critical strain at the bottom of the first layer can be computed from
strain factor Fe (Figure 2-13) as:

 The critical tensile strain under dual wheels or dual-tandem wheels can
be calculated from the same equation by correcting the strain factor.

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 Figure 2-13: Strain factor in two layer systems for single wheel. (Haung,
1973)

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 Example-2: A circular load having radius 6 in. (and uniform

pressure 80 psi (552 kPa) is applied on a two-layer system, as shown
in Figure 2.14 below. The subgrade has an elastic modulus 5000 psi
(35 MPa ) and can support a maximum vertical stress (σc) of 8 psi.
If the HMA has an elastic modulus 500,000 psi, what is the required
thickness of a full-depth pavement? If a thin surface treatment is
applied( instead of HMA) on a granular base with an elastic
modulus 25,000 psi what is the thickness of base course required ?

Figure 2.14: Example 2

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 Solution:
a. Given El/E2 = 500,000/5000 = 100 , and σc/q = 8/80 = 0.1, from
Figure 2.10, find a/h1 = 1.15, so the value of hl = 6/1.15=5.2 in.,
which represents the minimum thickness for full depth .
b. Given El /E2=25,000/5000=5, and 𝝈c /q=0.1, from Figure 2.10,
for a/hl =0.4, so the value of h1=6/0.4=15 in., which is the
minimum thickness of granular base required.
Note: compare between the two values of h1

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2.2.2 Three Layer Systems

 The three layer systems can be conceived as
follows:
1. Top layer, representing all bituminous
layers taken together.
2. Middle layer, representing the unbounded
base and sub base courses and
3. Third layer, representing the sub grade.

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2.2.2 Three Layer Systems

 Figure 2-15 shows a three-layer system and the stress at the interfaces of the
axis of symmetry. Important note: v1 = v2 =v3 = 0.5

Figure 2 .15. Three layers system

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2.2.2 Three Layer Systems

 At the axis of symmetry, tangential and radial stresses are
identical, σt= σr, and shear stress is equal to zero, τ = 0.

• Jones has developed a series of tables for determining stresses in a three layer
system for the following dimensionless parameters:

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 Parts of Jones’s table is presented in Table 2-1, from which

four sets of stress factors, ZZ1, ZZ2, ZZ1-RR1, ZZ2-RR2, can
be obtained. The product of these factors and the contact
pressure gives the stresses as:
• From the continuity of horizontal
displacement at the interfaces, σ’r1
and σ’r2 can be computed from

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 The tables presented by Jones consist of four values of k1 and

k2 (0.2, 2, 20, and 200), so solutions for intermediate
values of k1 and k2 can be obtained by interpolation.
 Once the stresses at the interface are calculated, strains can
be computed as:
 For Vertical strains
{Bottom of Layer – 1}

{Top of Layer – 2}
 For radial strains
{Bottom of Layer – 1}

{Top of Layer – 2}
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Table 2-1
Three-Layer Systems
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 Table 2-1

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 Example 3:
Given the three-layer system shown in Figure 2 .16 with a
=4.8 in.( 122 mm), q =120 psi (828 kPa), h1 = 6 in (152
mm), h2 = 6 in. (203 mm), E1 = 400,000 psi (2.8 GPa), E2
= 20,000 psi (138 MPa), and E3 = 10,000 psi (69MPa),
determine all the stresses and strains at the two interfaces
on the axis of symmetry.

Figure 2 .16: Example 3

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Solution:
 Given k1 = 400,000/20,000 =20, k2=20,000/10,000=2, A
=4.8/6 = 0.8, and H = 6/6 = 1,
 From Table 2.1, Find the factors:,
 ZZ1= 0.12173, ZZ2=0.05938, ZZ1=RR1=1.97428, and
ZZ2-RR2 = 0.09268 .
From Equations
 σz1=q×ZZ1=120×0.12173=14.61psi(101kPa)
 σz2=q×ZZ2=120×0.05938=7.12 psi(49.1kPa)
 σz1-σr1=q×(ZZ1-RR1)=120×1.97428=236.91psi (1.63 MPa),
σr1=14.61-236.91 = -222.31 psi.
 σz2 - σr2 = q×(ZZ2-RR2)=120×0.09268=11.12 psi,
σr2=7.12-11.12= -4.0 psi
 𝝈`𝒓𝟏 =14.61-(14.61-(-222.31))/20=2.76 psi,
 𝝈`𝒓𝟐 = 7.12-(7.12-(-4))/2=1.56 psi

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 Solution

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Solution:
a. At bottom of layer 1:
 To calculate the strains at the bottom of layer 1
 εz1=(σz1-σr1)/E1=236.91/400,000=5.92x10-4
 εr1=(σr1-σz1)/2E1=-236.91/2x400,000=-2.96x10-4
(or directly, using equation εz1 =-2εr1)
b. At top of layer 2:
 To calculate the strains at the top of layer 2
 εz2T = (σz1 - σ`𝒓𝟏 ) / E2 = (14.61-2.76)/20000 = 5 .92 x
10-4 = εz1 at bottom of layer 1
 εr2T= (𝝈`𝒓𝟏 -σz1)/2E2= (2.76-14.61)/2×20000 = -2.96 x
10-4 = εr1 at bottom of layer 1

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Solution:
c. At bottom of layer 2:
 To calculate the strains at the bottom of layer 2
 εz2B = (σz2 - σr2)/E2 =(7.12-4=11.12)/20000=5.56x
10-4
 εr2B =(σr2- σz2)/2E2=-11.12/2×20000=-2 .78 x 10-4
d. At top of layer 3:
 To calculate the strains at the top of layer
 εz3 = (σz2 - 𝝈`𝒓𝟐 ) / E3 = (7.12-1.56)/ 10000 =
5.56x 10-4 = εz2B At bottom of layer 2
 εr3 = (𝝈`𝒓𝟐 -σz2)/2E3=-5.56/2×10000 = -2 .78 x
10-4 = εr2B At bottom of layer 2

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 Reading Assignment 49
• Equivalent Thickness Method (OdeMark’s Concept)

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