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ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I (CENG 3102)
CHAPTER 4: HIGHWAY DRAINAGE AND CROSS-DRAINAGE
STRUCTURES
After completion of this chapter,
students will be able to
4.1 Introduction to Highway Drainage Analyze and design surface
4.2 Types of Drainage System drainage channels
Surface and Subsurface Drainage Recommend possible solutions to
4.3 Design of Drainage System subsurface and cross-drainage
problems
Highway Drainage
A means by which surface water is removed from
pavement and ROW
Redirects water into appropriately designed
channels
Eventually discharges into
natural water systems
Introduction to Highway Drainage
Transverse slopes
Removes water from pavement surface
Facilitated by cross-section elements (cross-slope,
shoulder slope)
Longitudinal slopes
Minimum gradient to maintain adequate slope in
longitudinal channels
Longitudinal channels
Ditches along side of road to collect surface water after
run-off
5
Longitudinal slope
Longitudinal
channel
Transverse slope
Introduction to Highway Drainage
6
Trapezoidal
Introduction to Highway Drainage
7
stream gauging records, high water marks, and the sizes and past performances of
existing structures in the vicinity.
Precipitation: rainfall records near the study site
geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and
flood plains, and the general geology and soils of the basin may be required for
forecasting flood flow.
Existing Structures: The size, location, type, and condition of existing structures on
of rainfall.
The road surface is made impermeable to prevent infiltration of water.
Types of Drainage Systems
10
strength of subgrade.
With increase in moisture content the strength of the subgrade
decreases.
The variation in moisture content of subgrade is caused by the
minimum.
From usual drainage system, only gravitational water can be
C i Ai
Cw i 1
n
A
i 1
i
Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
Table: Recommended
Runoff Coefficient C for
rural catchment(2013)
Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
The time of concentration(T ) is defined as the time required for the surface
c
runoff from the remotest part of the drainage basin to reach the point where
the drainage facility is located.
The time of concentration generally consists of one or more of the following
three components: time for overland flow, time for gutter or stream sewer
flow (urban), or time for channel flow. Travel time(Ti) is the ratio of flow
length to average flow velocity.
L n
Ti i TC Ti
Vi i 1
Where:
Tc = time of concentration (hours)
Where:
Tc= time of concentration (hours)., Sav = average channel/stream/ slope
(m/m).
L = hydraulic length of catchments measured along flow path from the
catchment boundary to the point where the flood needs to be determined
(km).
H 0.10L =elevation height at 10% of the length of the watercourse (m)
H 0.805L = elevation height at 85% of the length of the watercourse (m)
Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
Example 1:
In rainfall region A1, a catchment area of 32.52 hectare is being analyzed. Given
the Estimated Tc=0.2986 hours=18min, and runoff coefficient, C=0.45;
Determine the discharge for different return periods.
Solution:
First read the rainfall intensity(I) for duration of 18mm and each return periods of
2,5,25,50, and 100 years using IDF curves.
These are: I2=59.5mm/hr ; I5=78.6mm/hr; I10=90mm/hr; I25=107.3mm/hr;
I50=119.4mm/hr, and I100=130mm/hr Q=0.00278*Cf*C*I*A
Q=0.00278*Cf*0.45*I*32.52
Calculate the Peak flood: A=32.52 hec Q=0.04068*Cf*I
Return period 2 5 10 25 50 100
I(mm) (read from IDF curve) 59.5 78.6 90 107.3 119.4 130
Cf (taken from table) 1 1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Q(m3/s) =0.04068*Cf*I 2.42 3.20 3.66 4.80 5.83 6.88
Types of Drainage Systems
Types:
Subsurface drainage systems are usually classified into five general
categories:
Longitudinal drains
Transverse drains
Horizontal drains
Drainage blankets
Well systems
Types of Drainage Systems
27
1. Road in cutting
2. Water flowing from hill
3. Water rises through capillary action.
4. Road near drain
Methods of subsurface drainage
5. Lowering of water table.
6. Controlling seepage flow.
7. Controlling capillary water.
Types of Drainage Systems
28
3. Hydrologic design
Objective:
To estimate the maximum quantity of water expected to reach the element
of drainage system under consideration
Q= C i Ad
2. Hydraulic design
Objective:
Design of drain
R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
Q Av A
n 𝑹= 𝑨/ 𝑷
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Aim – providing suitable structure size
Economically and efficiently dispose of the expected runoff without detrimental erosion
and sedimentation problem
R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 Q 2 A3
Q Av A
n g T
Design Procedure
Select n and side slopes of the channel cross-section (based on channel lining material)
Take the recommended bed slope (S) based on the channel lining type
Solve for b and y using Manning`s formula (or take b=0.5m and calculate for y)
Check for y > y >>>> add free board
c
Check for y < yc >>>> reduce S
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
• If permissible velocity(v) is taken then the minimum area (A) required for a given
discharge (Q)can be estimated using continuity equation Q=A*v
Design of Drainage System
38
2. The minimum cross-sectional area is calculated from the permissible non-scouring velocity
and the maximum discharge,
A= Q / v
3. The wetted perimeter is calculated,
P=A/ R
4. Determine the dimensions of the drain i.e. the breadth and width by relating the area and
perimeter.
5. The depth of flow found should be greater than the critical depth [v2 /g]
6. If depth is less than the critical depth, erosion may occur at the downstream end and
therefore process should be revised or special measures should be provided at the
downstream.
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Example 2:
Given the stream data and height of flow (see diagram below), determine
the velocity of flow in the channel, the flow rate and state of flow
(subcritical / critical / supercritical flow).
Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
Elevation of channel bed is 110.60 m
Channel is regular and considered a little rough with a lot of trees and
weeds along the banks thus “n” values ranging between 0.06 and
0.08’.
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Example 2:
Solution:
Given the stream data and height of flow (see diagram below),
determine the velocity of flow in the channel, the flow rate and
state of flow (subcritical / critical / supercritical flow).
Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
trees and weeds along the banks thus “n” values ranging
between 0.06 and 0.08’.
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Example 2:
Solution:
Step 1. Calculate the cross sectional area of the flow. Depth, y=1.2m (111.8 m-
110.6 m)
A= 1.2 * 1.2 + 1.2 * 2.5 = 4.44m2
Step 2. Calculate the wetted perimeter(P) :
m
Step 4: Take n= 0.07 as given above and Calculate velocity of flow, V
=m/s
Step 5: Using fundamental equation of flow, determine flow rate (Q)
m3/s
Step 6: To determine the ‘state of flow’, we can use any of the two options
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Solution:
Step 6: To determine the ‘state of flow’, we can use any of
==0.057m;
yc=0.057m<<y=1.2m Fr= )
Fr= )= 0.356
Therefore the flow is subcritical Fr=0.356<1.0
Therefore the flow is subcritical
Design of Drainage System
43
Example 3:
Design a highway drainage channel in a non-erodible material to carry a
discharge of 1.0 cumecs when the maximum permissible velocity is 0.9 m/s.
Assume bed slope = 1 in 4000, side slope = 1:1 and Manning’s n = 0.020.
Solution:
…………………………………………….(*)
……………………………….……………….(**)
Substituting B=2.506- from (**) in to (*) , it becomes
>>
Design of Drainage System
44
Example 4:
The maximum quantity of water expected in one of the open longitudinal drains on
clayey soil is 0.9 m3/sec. design the cross section and longitudinal slope of trapezoidal
drain assume the bottom width of the trapezoidal section to be 1.0 m and cross slope
to be 1.0 vertical to 1.5 horizontal. The allowable velocity of flow in the drain is 1.2
m/sec and Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.02.
Solution:
𝑏 = 1.0 m (base width) 0.45 m
𝑄 = 0.9 m3s –1
𝑛 = 0.002 m–1/3s
This is the actual depth, allow a
V=1.2 m/sec free board of 0.15 m, the depth of
Discharge: the side drain may taken as
Top width of the channel=(1+1.5D+1.5D)=1+3D 0.45+0.15=0.6 m.
Cross section area of the drain=(1+1+3D)*D/2 Slope:
Design of Drainage System
45
Solution:
Slope:
Assume n=0.02
Wetted perimeter, p
Example 5:
The discharge in a channel with bottom width 3 m is 12 m3s –1 . If
Manning’s 𝑛 is 0.013 m–1/3s and the stream wise slope is 1 in 200, find the
normal depth if:
a) The channel has vertical sides (i.e. rectangular channel);
b) The channel is trapezoidal with side Hence,
slopes 2H:1V.
𝑏=Solution:
3 m (base width) Reiterate as an iterative formula
𝑄 = 12 m3s –1 for h:
𝑛 = 0.013 m–1/3s
𝑆 = 0.005 h=
a) Rectangular Channel Here, with length in meters,
Discharge:
Q=VA
Where, in normal flow
Iteration ( from, e.g., h=0.8316 ) gives
A=bh, h=1.024 m
Answer: normal depth = 1.02 m.
Design of Drainage System
47
Hence,
Solution:
𝑏 = 3 m (base width)
𝑄 = 12 m3s –1
𝑛 = 0.013 m–1/3s Here, with lengths in meters,
𝑆 = 0.005
b) Trapezoidal Channel Iteration ( from, e.g., h=0.8316 ) gives
Base width b, surface width 𝑏 + 2 × (2ℎ) h=0.7487 m
and two sloping side lengths = ℎ√5. Answer: normal depth = 0.749 m.
Area and wetted perimeter:
h=
Hydraulic radius:
Discharge:
Q=VA=
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Design of Cross-Drainage structures
Drifts:
Most of the time concrete slab is used (when the bed of
the river is not able to carry vehicles.
Are always over flooded if there is rainfall
Vented Fords:
Have vents or pipes to handle low level of flood but
subjected to flooding at high rainfall period
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Drifts
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Vented fords
Highway bridges
Design principle involves
Location
Alignment
Foundation
Traffic safety, operating conditions, and fulfilment of the purposes of the road
Constriction of flow
Velocity of flow
Scouring
Flooding
Economics
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Bridge best site
Source: ERA(2013)
Low volume road
design manual
Design of Drainage System
56
Drainage channels
Drainage channels should:
expected,
Prevent sedimentation of the particles carried by
water.
Design of Drainage System
57
divert the water away from the road to a water course or a valley.
Culverts
A closed conduit placed under the embankment to carry water across the roadway is
termed as culverts.
culverts are the bridging structures of linear waterway span mostly less than about 6m.
A culvert is more hydraulically efficient than minor bridge and discharge through a
Collection and transport of water across the road so as to not cause damage to the road
drain).
Minimum of 50cm cover of soil should be provided so that traffic load
Box Culvert
Suitable for large flow where the boulder movement may occur.
Constructed where the nature of the soil below the foundation is not suitable
the maximum flow of depth does not exceed 1.5m which saves the
construction cost.
During the flood, the water flows over the road and traffic on both sides
is stopped but as soon as the flood recedes, the traffic flow is resumed.
Bed slope of the causeway in estimating the span should not generally
30cm.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE AND CROSS-DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
62
Reflection Questions
1. Explain the process involved in design surface
drainage systems such as ditches
2. What are cross-drainage structures?
3. What factors are taken into considerations in
the selection of cross-drainage structures?
4. What are the possible solutions to subsurface
drainage problem?
References
1) ERA(2013) Drainage Design manual
2) Huang J.(2004), Pavement Analysis and Design
3) ERA(2013) Low volume road design manual
The End.
Thank You