CHAPTER 6

DRAINAGE AND SLOPE

PROTECTION
 6-1 DRAINAGE
• Defined as the means of
collecting, transporting, and
disposing of surface water
originating in or near the right
of way, or flowing in stream
crossings or bordering the right
of way.
 ROADWAY FUNDS
• About 25% of roadway funds
Ditches, dikes,
are spent for culverts, bridges, Culverts, channels and ero-
bridges, and
and other drainage structures. other drainage
sion control struc-
tures
structures
• Bigger appropriations are 25%
allotted for ditches, dikes,
channels and erosion control
structures or rural roads.
• Major capital investments are
channeled to urban areas for
storm drains and other
appurtenances plus the routine Storm drains, other appurte-
clearing of drainage facilities. nances as well as routine clean-
ing

Surface Draining
• One of the many problems to
be considered in establishing
the location and construction
of roads.
Surface drainage problems follow
three basic considerations:
1. Hydraulic design that deals with estimating the
highest rate of run-off to be handled.
2. Hydraulic Design deals with the selection of the
kinds and sizes of the drainage facilities that is
most economical to accommodate the estimated
water flow.
3. Erosion Control is to ascertain the design will
not create erosion or other unacceptable
environmental conditions.
6-2 Hydrology
 It is a branch of physical geography that deals with water of the earth. The branch of
hydrology that concern highway engineers are:

1. The frequency and intensity of precipitation.

2. The frequencies that this precipitation brings the highest run-off which are equal or exceeded
critical values.
3. The distribution of precipitation throughout the seasons that influences water behavior
affecting the highway surfaces.
4. The prediction regarding future rainfalls or run-off from gathered statistical approaches,
formula, or simulated methods based on the laws of probability.
 By the Rational Methods
 By the Empirical Formula
 By the Unit Hydrograph Runoff is Predicted Based
 By Statistical Approach on the Following Methods:
 By Simulation
Relationship and Effect of Hydraulic and Construction

1. Usually, highway construction disrupt existing natural drainage pattern. Water passing the
natural right of ways is often intercepted by road cuts. The flow of several streams are
collected, to pass under the highway through a single channel, diverting streams to canal or
culverts that differ in sizes and length including the flow characteristics from the previous one.
2. Construction operations may disturb the ground cover, and loosen the soil creating muddy
stream as a result of erosion.
3. Erosions create debris that are carried downstream, and deposited at points where the velocity
slackens. Record shows that almost every drainage installations disturbed the ecological
balance of nature.
4. Any changes in the land use may alter the historical run-off or un-gauged rural water shed that
could be disastrous on wide scale basis.
1. As much as possible, any existing
drainage system patterns and soil
cover should not be disturbed. Cardinal Rules on
2. Necessary changes in the Drainage Design
drainage patterns should not in
any manner bring velocities that
may create new erosion problems.
6-3 Drainage Economic Considerations
 The term economy in drainage system, simply mean: finding the solution to a problem that is
cheapest in the long run under the following conditions:

1. Determine the estimated initial investment cost.

2. Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
3. Consider anticipated loss and damage for each solution.
6-3 Drainage Economic Consideration
Under the foregoing considerations, annual
appropriation for possible drainage or economic loss is
equal to the estimated losses from floods of various
magnitudes, multiplied by the probability that these floods
will occur any tirne of the year.
For instance, if the drainage loss from any flood
exceeding the design flow is P200,000 and according to
hydraulic computations such floods will occur once in
every 5 ysars, then the annual loss of flood damage is
P200,000 divided by 5 years or P40,000 per year.
Drainage problem is varied" and there is no single set of
assumption or rule to economic problem in drainage,
considering the uncertainty of flood frequency where the
design is based.
To major highways with large volume of traffic, losses to
motorists and to the economy, is tremendously high, if the
road will be closed frequently, due to flood and washout.
For major highways, projections might proved
that drainage facilities should accommodate a 50 year
flood whereas, the design based on a 5 year flood is
reasonable for a low volume rural roads.
Where drainage problem of any magnitude has
allernative solution, economic studies based on reasonable
estimated costs and possible damages, represent the best
approach. Flood frequencies and some of the costs, must
be thoroughly approximated and let catastrophic
occurrences pervert our perspective on cost risks
 6-4 Draining the Highway
Rain water flows laterally or obliquely on the surface of the road
pavement under tlre influenc€ of the cross section slope or super
elevation in the pavement and shoulders. If the water flow is controlled,
then, the shoulder is in danger of erosion. However, t'he shoulder will
have minimal erosion damage if it is already covered or protected by
turf or grass.
1. Water flowng across tlre roadway down the road slope must be thin
enough in a sheet form like so that the erosion on tlre shoulder will be
minimized.
2. Unprotected slope could be badly washed out if irregularity in the
pavernerfi or shoulder accumulates water into small streams. Another
point of water accumulation that endangers the shoulder is the low
portion of sagged vertical curves.
3. One way of preve,nting washout of the side slope is to retain the
water at the outer edge of the shoulder.
6-4 Draining the Highway

4.A crown ditch or intercepting channel mav be employed

at the top of the cut slope. This will prevent erosion of the
cut slope by surface runoff from the hillside above.
5. The surface should not be disturbed in any manner
where the natural ground is already covered with grass or
otherground cover.
6. The channel or canal should be formed making the
original ground as its bed and a small dike of topsoil or
imported materials to serve as its bank.
7. Scouring must be controlled. If possible, the water flow
must be limited to a safer amount by diverting the flow at
intervals. Water should be dropped down to the roadside
ditch by means of specially designed conduit or channels.
 6-4 Draining the Highway

Draining the Urban Street

1. On city streets, rain waters is guided by the road slope to the gutters and along wrth
them the curb and inlets designed to limit the spread of water over the traffic lanes.
2. AASFITO recommended that for a grade materials water should not encroach on the outer lane by
more than 1.80 meters for a l0 years flood. A 50 years return penod is proposed for depressed facilities.
3. The decision for water storm inlets and connections for gutters and depressed median should be based
on the same periods. Main storm drain for freeways has to accommodate 50 to 100 years storm.
4. For arterials, the return interval is 20 to 50 years. The water flow estimate was based on the Rational
Formula using the value of runoff coefhcient between 0 8 and 0.9 for pavements; 0.4 and 0.6 for gravel,
and 0.1 and 0.7 for grass.
Rational Formula: Q = clAd
Where:
Q : Quantlty of runoff in cubic foot per second
c = Runoffcoefficient expressing the ratio or rate of runoffto the rate of rainfall
I = lntensity of rainfatl in inches per hour for aduration equal to the time of concentration'
Ad = Drainage arca in hectares.

On Freeways and urban strests, the inlets for gutters and median should pass the designed flood without
clogging with debris .
 6-5 Manhole, Inlets and Catch
Basin

Manhole, inlets and catch basins are classified under Itent 502 of the DPWH
standard specifications which includes construction,reconstruction or adjustrnent of
manholes inlsts and catch basin.
Material Requirements:
l. Comrgated Metal Units' Whsn bituminous coating is specifiled, it shall conform to
ASTM D-1187, Asphalt Base Emulsion as protective coating for metal.
2. Sewer and manhole made of bricks from clay or shalemust conform to AASIITO
M-91 standard specifications. Building bricks of solid masonry units made from clay
or shale must conform to AASHTO M-l14.
3. Joint mortar mixture should be one part Portland cement and two parts fine
aggregate (gravel) plus hydrated lime equal
to 10% of the cement by weight.
4. Frames, gratings, covers and ladder rungs, should be assembled before shipment
and may be re-assembled readily'in the same position when installed. lnaccuracy
ofbearings must be corrected by machine.The frame, gating or cover to be used must
constitute one pair.
 6-5 Manhole, Inlets and Catch Basin
All casting should be uniformly coated wittr asphalt base emulsion
meeting the requirements sf ASTM D-1187.
Stuctural concrete for the purpose must attain a minimum 28 days
compreSsive stength to 20.68 Mpa (3000 psi). precast unit must be
cured and the water absorption of individual cores must not exceed
7 percent.
Sufficient number of cylinders shall be cast from the concrete for
each unit that will permit compression tests for 7. 14, and 28 days.
And to allow at least 3 cylinders for each tests. If the strength
requirement is met at 7 or 14 day, the units will be certified for use
at 14 days from the date of casting. If the strength is not met at 28
days, atl units made from that batch will be rejected. Cracks in
units, honeycombed or patched areas in excess of 2,000 squ:lre
millimeters, excessive water absorption and failure to meet
strength requirements will be rejected.
Construction Requirements
l. Concrete conskuction must conform to the
requiremeirtsfor ltsm 4O5-Stuctureal Concrete. Metal
frames shouldbe set in full moitar bed and pipe sections
flushed on the inside of the structure wall projected outside
sufficiently for proper connection with the next pipe
section.
2. Masonry shall fit neatly and tightly around the pipe
3. When grade adjusftnent or existingstructure is
specified,the frames, covers and gratings are removed and
then reset to the specified elevation.
4. Upon completion, each structure should be cleaned of any
accumulation of silts, debris, or foreign matters of any kind until
final acceptance of the work.
Methods of Measurement
Standard manhole inlets and catch basins be it new, or reconstructed will be measured in unit.
Any authorized additional concrete, reinforcing bars, masonry or labor required, will be
measured and paid for under Item 404 and 405. Junction Box structure is measured for paynent
as a manhole.The number of concrete covers, pairs of metal frames and gratings, pairs of metal
frames and covers, will be rneasurecl as acceptably completed. Likewise, the number of existing
manholes, inlets and catch basins will be nreasured as acccptably completed.
 6-6 Channel
The purpose in designing a charxrel is to determine the cross section of the canal that will accommodate
water flow smoothly and cheapest to construct and maintain.
1. Side slope with a ratio of 2:l or even flatter is most acceptable, except on rock or other hard materials
where channels are lined. For unlined or unfinished channel surface, the best cross section requires the
least total excavations.
2. The design of crown ditches, gutters, stream channels, and culverts flowing partially or fully, are based
on the principles of flow in an open canal. For uniform flow, the relationship is expressed in the Manning
Formula:

where:
Q = Quantitv of discharge in meter per second
R=Hydraulic radius in meter. This is the area of the flow across section divided by the wetted perimeter.
A= Area of the flow cross section in square meter.
S= Slope ofthe channel.
N= Manning roughness coefficient (see table 6-2)
 6-6 Channel
The condition to various channel problems rest on the following distinctions:
a) Water flowrng down a mild slope in an open canal is in Sub-critical flow.
b) Water flowing on steep slope is in Super critical flow.
Sub-critical flow exists when the depth of water in the channel is greater than the critical
depth.
Super-critical flow exists when the depth is less than the critical level.
The Critical depth occurs when the velocity head is one half the average depth.
The Average depth or Mean depth is the cross sectional area of the flow divided by its
width at the liquid surface.
Unless the possibility of erosion is eliminated within a reasonable lirnit, channel design
is considered not a completq unit.
1. The actual velocity must be checked against the maximum values for unprotected
earth.
2. Where channel scouring is indicated, reduction of water velocity should be adopted to
a safe level.
3. To'reduce the velocity is to reduce the flow of water by diversion.
4. Where diversion is not possible, the channel is widened, or lengthened. As an
alternative, the slope of the channel is decreased.
5. Baffles, checks or drops are introduced to reduce slope in the channel.
 6-7 CULVERT
With the exception of storm
drain, culvert includes all closed
conduits with standard designs
repeatedly used.
1. Culvert is loaded vertically by the
wheel load of vehicles; the earth fill
covering the culvert; and the horizontal
passive or active earth pressure. The
magnitude of these loads are uncertain
as they are influenced by:
a) Depth of the cover.
b) Nature and density of the
overlapping and adjacent soils.
c) Trench width and depth.
d) Deformation of the pipe under
load.
e) Field construction procedures.
2. The stress calculation for pipe
culverts are based on the
assumptions regarding the
methods under pipe support, soil
support at its sides and loading
distribution over it.
3. Corrugated metal pipes are
more flexible that could tolerate
greater deformations. The sides of
the corrugated metal pipe deform
laterally against the adjacent
backfill under vertical load and
the horizontal earth pressure
increases the load carrying ability
of the pipe.
4. Highway engineers rarely make structural
design for pipes and culvert because of the
difficulties and uncertainties involved.
Instead, they used past experience records
as guide then develop standard plans to fit
all normal situations.
5. For concrete, vitrified clay and cast iron
pipe, what is specified is the strength or
class of pipe to be used in each condition.
For corrugated metal pipe, highway
engineers prescribe plate thickness for the
different pipe size and the heights of fill.
6. It is now the practice of relying much on the recommendations of various manufacturers who
prepared all the design data and computations etc.
7. Highway agency has standard drawing of various culvert design appropriate for the more
common heights and widths of openings, heights of fill, including skew angles.
Installation of
Culverts
1. Culverts are installed in the original bed of stream with their slope and flow line conforming to the
natural channel or canal. The stream flow should not be disturbed to minimize the tendency of
erosion.
2. ln mountainous or rolling terrain, departure from channel alignment, either upstream or
downstream, may divert the current flow to one side of the channel. This is dangerous to create
erosion and deposition on the opposite side.
3. Culverts on skewed channel are relatively longer and costly. But channel changes and erosion
protections are provided with structures at one or both ends to reduce the skews.
4. Inverted siphons should be avoided whenever the water carries sediments of debris.
5. Stagnant water trapped inside the culverts sag is highly objectionable that must be avoided.
6. Most culverts start upstream with headwalls and terminate downstream with end wall. The
headwalls direct the flow into the culvert proper, while the end walls provide transition from the
culvert back to the regular channel.
7. Hydraulically, the headwalls and end walls functions separately but both retain the embankment
and protect it from washout.
8. In most cases, cut-off wall is extended to the level of expected scour. Sometimes a paved
apron or energy dissipater is extended beyond the cut off-wall.
9. The use of small pipe as end wall and sometimes head wall is being discouraged because they
are hydraulically inefficient as entrances. Instead, the pipe is extended be yond the toe of the
embankment.
10. The L type headwall create serious accident hazard, thus, gutter inlet with grate cover is
recommended.
11. A wing type wall is recommended for large culverts. The flared U and warped walls are used
on special applications.
 Under Item 500 of the DPWH standard specifications, the construction or
reconstruction of pipe culverts and storm drains are classified as Conduits.
FIGURE 6-4 TYPICAL HEADWALLS AND ENDWALLS FOR CULVERTS
Conduits
Conduits are laid on bedding or footing that conform with the following standard specifications
1. Conduit Bedding is classified into Class A, B and C.
2. In laying culvert pipes, the requirement of class C bedding is applied if no bedding class is
specified.
3. Class A bedding shall consist of a continuous concrete cradle conforming with the plan details.
4. Class B bedding is extended to a depth not less than 30% of the vertical outside diameter of
the conduit pipe.
5. The minimum thickness of the bedding materials beneath the pipe is 10 centimeters composed
of sand passing a 9.5 mm sieve but not more than l07o passes 0.075 mm sieve.
6. The layer of bedding material is arranged and shaped to fit in the conduit for at least 15% of its total
height.
7. When a bell and spigot type is used, the recesses in the bottom trench are shaped to accommodate the bell.
8. Class C bedding should be extended to a depth not less than 10% of its total height.
9. For flexible pipes, the bed is roughly shaped and a bedding blanket of sand is specified as follows:

For a large diameter structural plate pipes, the shaped bed need not exceed the width of the bottom plate.
 Laying the
Conduit Pipe

1. Installation of conduit pipes

should start at the
downstream end of the
conduit line.
2. The lower segment of the
conduit pipe should be in
contrast with the shape
throughout its full length.
Note: FIGURE 6.5 BEDDING CLASS AND LOAD
1. For class B and C FACTORS
beddings,
subgrades should
be excavated or
over excavated, if
necessary, a
uniform
foundation free of
protruding rocks
may be provided.
2. For class A or
other unyielding
foundation pipe
should be free
from shocks if
blasting is
anticipated in the
area.
1. For class B and C beddings sub
grades should be excavated or over
excavated, if necessary a uniform
foundation free of protruding rocks
maybe provided.
2. For class A or other unyielding
foundation, pipe should be free from
shocks if blasting is anticipated in the
area.
 Laying the
Conduit Pipe
3. The bell or groove ends of rigid
conduits and outside circumferential
laps of flexible conduits are placed
with longitudinal laps or seams at the
side.
4. Paved or partially lined conduit pipes
are laid with the longitudinal
centerline of the paved segment
coincides with the flow line of water.
5. Elliptical and elliptically reinforced
conduits are placed with the major
axis within 5 degrees of a vertical
plan through the longitudinal axis of
the conduit.
 Joining the Conduit
Pipes
Rigid conduit pipes are the bell and
spigot type, tongue and groove, or other
types that may be specified.
1. In joining conduit pipes, the ends
are fully entered into the inner
surface evenly flushed. Joints are
connected by:
a) Portland cement mortar or grout.
b) Rubber gaskets.
c) Oakum and mortar or joint
compound.
d) Plastic sealing compound.
e) A combination of these types or any
other as may be specified.
 Joining the Conduit
Pipes
2. Joint mortar for concrete pipes consists of 1
part by volume of Portland cement and 2
parts of approved sand with water
necessary to obtain a refined consistency.
Mortar should be used immediately within
30 minutes after its preparation.
3. Mortar joint is made with excess mortar to
form a continuous bead around the outside
joint of the pipe and smoothly finished on
the side.
4. Rubber gaskets are installed to form a
flexible watertight seal. When Portland
cement mixture is used, the completed
joints are protected against rapid drying by
any suitable covering materials.
5. Flexible conduits are firmly joined by
coupling bands.
 Backfilling
Backfilling follows after the laying
installation of conduit pipes under the
following specifications:
1. Materials for backfill should be
fine, readily compacted soil or
granular material selected from
approved sources. It should be
placed on each side of the conduit
for the full trench width up to
elevation of 30 cm. above the top
of the pipe.
2. Backfill materials should be free
from stones that would be retained
on 50 mm sieve, nor chunks of
highly plastic clay and other
objectionable materials.
 Backfilling
3. At least 95% of the granular
backfill materials passes the 12.5
mm sieve and not less than 95%
of it are retained on a 4.75 mm
sieve.
4. Oversized materials if present
should be removed.
5. On top of the trench, backfill
materials are placed at or near
optimum moisture content and
compacted in layers not
exceeding 15 cm. (compacted) on
both sides up to 30 centimeters
above the top of the conduit. Care
should be exercised to compact
thoroughly the backfill under the
haunches of the conduit.
 Backfilling

6. For that portion above the

trench on each side of the
conduit pipe, the width of
backfill is equal to twice the
diameter of the conduit or 3.50
meters whichever is smaller.
7. After being bedded and
backfilled, all conduits are
protected by cover fill 1.00
meter high, before any heavy
equipment is permitted to cross
during the construction of the
roadway“
Field Strutting
Whenever required by the plan and
specifications, vertical diameter of
rounded flexible conduits is
increased by 5 percent through
shop elongation or by means of
jacks applied after the entire line of
conduit installed on the bedding but
before back filling. The vertical
elongation should be maintained by
means of sills and struts, or by
horizontal ties used on paved invert
pipe.
Pipes and struts should be 30
centimeters in place until the
embankment is completed and
compacted.
6-8 Design of Underdrain
Underdrain is categorized under Item
501 of DPWH Standard
Specifications, which provides that:
"This item shall consist of
constructing underdrain, using pipes
and granular filter material
underdrain pipe outlets and blind
drains using granular material in
accordance with the specifications
and in reasonably close conformity
with the lines and grades shown on
the plans or as established by the
engineer.“
Design of Underdrain
1. The pipe is used to carry away collected water. The size and number of pipes and its locations
of opening should be studied carefully to prevent excessive entrance velocity that will cause
silting to the pipe.
2. Filter materials with which the trench is backfilled or the opening in the filter, should be fine
enough so that the adjacent soil will not be washed-out into the drain.
3. The top of underdrain should be sealed with impervious soil to prevent the entrance of surface
water.
4. Intercepting drains must extend into the impervious zone.
5. The pipes are laid with the flow line at least 1.20 meters below the finished grade and
carefully bedded with gravel or filter materials
Materials
Materials should conform with the requirements specified as follows:

Zinc coated (galvanized) corrugated Extra strength and standard strength

iron or steel for culverts and underdrain clay pipe and perforated clay pipe Porous concrete (AASHTO M-176)
(AASHTO M-36). (AASHTO M-165)

Bituminous fiber non-pressure sewer

Asbestos cement perforated underdrain
Perforated concrete (AASHTO M-175) drain and under drainage pipe system
pipes (AASSHTO M-189)
(AASSHTO M-I77)
Granular Backfill Filter Materials
Granular backfill filter materials shall be permeable meeting the requirements of AASHIO M-
6 specifications except that soundness tests will not be required and minor variations in grading and
content of deleterious substances may be approved by the engineer. All materials are subject to
inspection before acceptance.

Underdrain Outlet
Trench for underdrain outlets are excavated to the depth and width as planned. Pipes are laid in
the trench with all ends firmly joined and backfilled after inspection and approval of the pipe
installation.

Blind Drain
Trenches for blind drains are excavated to the width and depth as shown on plans. The trench
is then filled with granular backfill material to the required depth. Any remaining upper portions of the
trench should be filled with either granular or impervious material in accordance with the requirements
for excavations.
6-9 Debris Control
Flood waters usually carries objectionable objects like brushes, banana trunks, tree
branches etc. These floating debris clogs culvert entrances and raise the headwater elevation over
flowing the road and damaging adjoining properties. Culverts should be designed to allow debris
to pass a single large span box culvert is preferred on streams carrying large floating objects than
the multi-span culvert with the same area of openings.
Another alternative is to extend the curtain wall separating the barrels of the multi span
culverts upstream, with its top slanting downward so that in time of flood, debris carried by flood
water will ride up on this wall or turn to pass easily through the opening.
Another method proven effective is to install up stream debris racks or wire, steel rail or
piling. Some design provides trap for the sand or gravel carried by the stream rather than having it
pass through the structure. However, design of debris control devices depends upon the kind of
debris to be handled, the volume of floodwater and the site conditions.
6-10 The Legal Aspect of Drainage
Damage claim against the Department could be established if:
1. Wren as a result of the agency's project, the flow of several streams or creeks were concentrated
into a single channel that resulted to erosion, silting or flooding of private property.
2. When due to poor design or inadequate maintenance, water backed against highway or
embankment resulted to inundation of land or property or caused injury or death.
3. Liability however, is limited to damages in direct consequences of the improvement. The agency
would not be liable for damages if an unprecedented storm causes the stream to overflow a
newly constructed channel, provided that this channel has the capacity equal to the natural
volume of water flow.
4. Engineering decisions if based on an accepted practice, do not provide for a course of action. In
any case, the responsibility of the highway agency would be determined through negotiations or
court litigations. Therefore, design of drainage system must satisfy the various requirements of
the environmental laws and regulations.
6-ll Roadway Design and Construction for Unusual
Soil Conditions
Problems usually encountered in the design and constructions of roadways are:
1. The stability of fill sand slope
2. The drainage
3. Capillarity and frost heave
4. Permafrost
5. Elasticity and rutting
Stability of Fills and Slope
There are instances where the materials in cut bank slips down the roadway, or
sometimes, a portion of high fill slides outward carrying portion of the roadway. This pattern of
failure is common in fills or cut slope of homogenous non-granular materials.
Capillarity
Capillarity is the tendency of water to seek its own level as if in an open channel flows through
the pores a:rd fine channels of the soil. It is the force pulling free water through the voids of the soil in all
directions.

Elasticity and Rutting

Elasticity is common in soils whose fines consist mainly of flat and flaky particles. This kind of
soil has rubberized characteristic that rebound under heavy loads.
6-12 Stabilizing the Unsupported Slope
An existing earth slope that have been stable can experience significant movement called slope
failure or landslide due to the following physical changes :
a. Changes in natural conditions
b. Changes induced by man
Changes in natural conditions may be the result from:
1. Occurrence of earthquake.
2. Subsidence of underground cavern.
3. Erosion.
4. Slope weakening due to the development of cracks or shrinkage cracks that are followed by
water intrusions.
5. Variations in the elevation of ground water or changes in the slope subsurface flow that create
new seepage forces.
6. Weakening of buried soil or rock seams due to ground water flow or chemical leaching.
Changes Induced by Man
a. Increased loading on a slope or near its crest.
b. Removal of earth below the toe of a slope.
c. Removal of materials from slope making it steeper.
d. Topographic modification like earth moving, excavations, change in elevation from one area
to another which may create slope failure.
e. Landslide or other conditions caused by man

Slide
Slide refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is defined and separated from the
underlying and adjacent earth by plane, comprising a number of adjacent planes were seepage
result. The seepage plane represent the continuous surface where the maximum shear strength of
the earth material has been reached with the result that large displacement occurs.
Slide is classified into four:
1. Rotational slide.
2. Translational slide.
3. Block or wedge failure.
4. Flows and spread.

Rotational Slide is associated with natural slopes and con structed embankment of
homogeneous materials possessing cohesion.
Translational slide is associated with slope of layered materials where the mechanism of
slippage occurs along a weak plane that possesses a downward dip and in cohesionless soil slopes
where seepage occurs.
Block or Wedge failure refers to the displacement of an intact mass of soil due to the
action of an adjacent zone of earth
 Flows and Spread failure is the most complex type of soil mass movement. Flow involves
lateral movement of soil having a characteristic of viscous fluid, although the actual consistency of
the moving mass may vary from very wet to dry.
Spread refers to the occurrence of multi-directional lateral movement by a fractured soil
mass. Earthquake is a typical causes of lateral spreads.
6-13 Improving the Stability of Slope
Procedures adopted in the past which have been successful in stabilizing slopes are enumerated as
follows:
1. Corrective and preventive measures of reducing a mass or loading have successfully prevented
further slides.
2. Improving the shear strength of the earth in the failure zone by constructing structural
elements that will provide resistance to movement.
3. Consider the characteristics of the soil in the slope like:
a. The thickness and depth of the materials involved in sliding.
b. The ground water conditions.
c. The spaces available to undertake corrective changes.
e. The topographical conditions at the vicinity of the slope and the tendency for changes
such as the advert of the seismic and vibratory loadings to occur.
4. Where area is available, flattening of the slop can be done to reduce the weight of the mass
that tends to slide.
5. If base failure is anticipated, placement of beam below the toe of the slope will increase
movement resistance.
6. If the zone below the toe is susceptible to severe erosion, protective rock fill blanket and
riprap can be installed at the toe area.
7. To prevent infiltration, erosion and to reduce seepage force, the stone subsurface water and
intercept surface water should be lowered.
8. If the soil is cohesionless, the shear strength of the slope material can be improved through
densification by using explosives or vibroflotation or terra probe procedures.
9. For cohesive soils, shear strength could be improved by consolidation and water content
reduction through sur charging which may include wick drains, electro osmosis and thermal
drying.
10. Where the weak condition is critical to the stability of the slope, grouting and injection
methods could be utilized to add cementing and bonding agent.
11. Pile Driving, sheet piling or retaining walls are utilized to provide lateral support and increase
resistance of slope tending to stocks.
12. Improvement and protective methods such as slope flattening and drainage control are
preferred for economical reasons.
 6-14 Retaining Wall
The practical use of gravity retaining wall is controlled by height
limitations. Thus, the required wall cross section increases significantly with
tall heights due to the effect of the triangular soil pressure distributed behind
the retaining wall.
If the ground water level rises into the backfill behind a retaining
wall because of either changing ground water condition or percolating water
surface, the lateral pressure against the wall is also changed.
Settlement and distortion of a retaining wall due to com pression
of the foundation soil must be limited to a tolerable value. The combined
effect of soil and water pressure on the retaining wall causes over turning
moments and sliding forces greater than the condition where there is no
water.
To avoid the rise of water building up behind the retaining wall, a
weep hole or collector drainage system or both are pro vided as part of the
design construction. Weep holes should be at least 3 inches diameter
provided with granular soil filter fabric at the wall to prevent backfill erosion.
The horizontal spacing of weep holes ranges from 1.20 to 3.00 meters.
For taller walls, two or more rows of weep holes may be provided
with typical vertical spacing at l.50 meters.
A good retaining wall design
must conform to the following
requirements:
1. The base and stem of the
retaining wall must be
capable of resisting the
internal shear and bending
moments developing as a
result of soil and other
loading.
2. The wall must be safe
against overturning.
3. The wall structure must be
safe against sliding.
4. The bearing capacity of the
foundation material
supporting the wall must not
be exceeded.
Item 504 Rip Rap and Grouted Rip Rap
Class of Stone for Riprapping
 Class A - Stone ranging from 15 to 25 kg. with at least 50 % of the stones weighing more
than 20 kilograms.
 Class B - Stone ranging from 30 to 70 kg. with at least 50% of the stones weighing more
than 50 kilograms.
 Class C - Stones ranging from 60 to 10Q kg. with at least 50% of the stones weighing more
than 80 kilograms.
 Class D - Stones weighing from 100 kg. to 200 kg. with at least 50% of the stones weighing
more than 150 kg.
Excavation and Placing
The bed for riprap is excavated down the required depth properly compacted, trimmed
and shaped. The riprap foundation is dug below the depth of scour. The toe trench is filled with
stone of the same class as specified.
 Stones placed below the water line are distributed properly and those above the water level are
placed by hand or individually laid by machine with close broken joints firmly bedded into the slope
against the adjoining stones.
Each stone is laid with its longest axis perpendicular to the slope in close contact with adjacent
stone. The riprap is thoroughly rammed into place and the finished stone are laid to an even tight surface.
Intersections between stones are filled with small broken fragments firmly rammed into place.
Grouting
When grouted riprap is specified, stones are placed by hand or individually laid by machine. Spaces
between stones are then filled with cement mortar sufficient enough to completely fill all the voids
except the face surface of the stones left exposed.
Cement grout is placed starting from the bottom to the top of the surface and then swept with
stiff broom. After grouting, the surface is cured like structural concrete for a period of at least 3 days
after the installation.
Masonry stone is categorized under Item 505 of the DPWH standard specifications. This item
consists of stone masonry in minor structures, in headwalls for culverts and retaining walls at the toes of
the slope.
Material Requirements
1. The stone should be clean, hard and durable. Adobe stone shall not be used unless specified.
2. When the wall thickness is 45 cm. or less, the header should extend entirely from the front to
the back face.
3. Backings are built chiefly of large stones. The individual stones of backing and hearting are
well bonded with the face wall and with each other.
4. All openings and interstices in the backing are filled completely with cement mortar or with
spall surrounded completely with mortar.

Pointing and Coping

Cement mortar for joints on top of masonry surface are crowned slightly at the center to
provide drainage. If coping is required, it should be indicated in the plan.
Where coping is not required, the top of the wall is finished with stone wide enough to
cover the top of the wall from 45 cm. to 100 cm. in length and of random heights of 15 cm. Stone
is laid where the top course is an integral part of the wall. The tops of the top course stone are
pitched to line in both vertical and horizontal plane.
Weeping Holes
All walls and abutments should be provided with weep holes placed at the lowest point where
free outlets for water can be obtained and spaced not more thart2 meters center distance.
Cleaning and Curing
Immediately after laying and while the mortar is still fresh, all face stones should be thoroughly
cleaned of mortar stains and should be kept clean until the work is completed. If weather is hot or dry, the
masonry should be protected from the sun and kept wet for a period of at least 3 days after the completion.

Item 506 Hand Laid Rock Embankment

Material Requirements
Stones for hand laid rock embankment must be sound and durable furnished in a well balance
range of sizes meeting the requirements as follows:
1. All stones should be more than 0.015 cubic meter in volume and not less than 75 percent of the total
volume should consist of stones at 0.03 cubic meters in volume. Stones obtained from excavation
performed under the contract may be used.
2. Adobe stone should not be used unless otherwise specified in the plan.

Construction Requirements
3. Excavation shall be sufficient enough to expose the foundation bed. Stones are laid flat
securely placed with their broken joint lined.
4. The larger stone should be generally located in the lower portion of the structure and voids
eliminated to possible extent.
5. Spall smaller than the minimum stone size are used to check the larger stones solidly in
position to fill voids be tween the major stones laid in the embankment.
6. The exposed face of the rock mass should be uniform without projections of more than 15 cm.
beyond the neat lines indicated on plans.
7. Backfill adjacent to the hand laid rock embankment should be filled entirely with acceptable
materials coming from the excavation items and compacted.
Item 5-7 Sheet Piles
Material Requirements
1. Timber sheet pile may consist of any species that will satisfactorily stand driving It is sawn or
hewn with square corners free from worn holes, loose knots, wind shakes, decay or unsound
portions or other defects that might impair its strength or tightness.
2. Concrete Sheet Piles. Concrete reinforcement and manufacture of concrete sheet piles should
conform to the requirements of Item 400 - Piling.
3. Steel Sheet Piles should of the type, weight and section modulus indicated on the plans or
special provisions and conform to the requirements of item 400- piling.

Item 509 Gabion

Gabion is a wire mish supplied in various

width and length that is in multiple of 2,3,or 4 times
its width.
6-15 Highway Bridges
Highway bridges are of two types:
1. Those that carry vehicular traffic and pedestrians over a large stream.
2. Those that separate traffic movements as interchanges and street pedestrians over or under
crossings.
Hydraulic Problems:
3. There must be available stream record that provides the usual method of estimating water
discharges under the bridge.
4. Analysis of the channel relationship as to:
a. Peak flow
b. Water way opening
c. Water surface elevation at the structure and upstream and flow velocity.
3. The degree of contraction of the flowing water in the channel approach.
4. Final structure proportions and required channel modifications based on the studies.
5. Effect of bridge opening and approaches that might cause flood to adjacent properties. This is
associated with hydraulic aspects of bridge design.
6. Economic, legal and social implications where cooperative planning with all affected groups
and agencies is necessary.
7. Where the bridge is to rest on eroding streambed scouring is the primary concern. The
problem of the designer is, if the design is over safe, it is over design, meaning, the foundation
becomes very costly. But if scouring is under estimated, the foundation might be undermined
which might result to total destruction of the entire bridge.
8. Recent findings showed that the latest scours is when the pier has less resistance to flow.
Meaning, that the piers are aligned with the flow with the smallest cross section that is best
where scouring is a problem. Test results further showed that, scouring increases with depth of
flow and becomes a problem in streams with high ratio between flood and normal flow.
Highway Bridges, Designed to Resist Loads Brought by:
1. The weight of the structure itself called dead load.
2. The weight and dynamic effect of moving load called "Live Load“
3. The centrifugal forces developed by moving vehicles on curved structure.
4. The wind load and the stresses brought about by:
a. Temperature change
b. Earth
c. Shrinkage
d. Buoyancy
e. Rib shortening
f. Erection
g. Current pressure
h. Earthquake
Bridge Types
A bridge consists of substructure of abutments and piers that supports superstructure that
carry the roadway between sup ports. Bridge type includes: slab, girder, truss, arch and cable stayed.
Each suspension bridge has a distinctive form of structure, the selection of the kind of bridge to be
installed depends on the length of individual span as follows:
1. Short span up to 18 meters which either:
a. Reinforced concrete rigid frame with slab deck.
b. T-Beam or box girders reinforced concrete.
c. Steel plate girders with reinforced concrete deck.

2. Bridge of large span

a. Girder type rigid frames of reinforced concrete.
b. T-Beam or box girder reinforced concrete.
c. Steel plate girders with reinforced concrete deck
3. Span that exceeds 90 meters long steel trusses, arches of steel or reinforced concrete.
4. Span that exceed 150 meters are generally made of steel trusses, cable-stayed or suspension
bridge.
For designing purposes, AASHTO has adopted standard vehicles as representative loadings :