Drainage Design Manual Final Nov13 - Chapter 6

Chapter 6
Drainage Design Manual – 2013 Hydraulic Design of Open Channels
6 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS
6.1 Introduction
An open channel is a conduit in which water is conveyed with a free surface. Although
closed conduits such as culverts and storm drains are open channels when flowing partially
full, the term is generally applied to natural and improved watercourses, gutters, ditches,
and channels.While the hydraulic principles discussed in this section are valid for all
drainage structures, the primary consideration is given to channels along, across,
approaching and leaving the highway.
In addition to performing its hydraulic function, the drainage channel should be
economical to construct and maintain.Open channels should be reasonably safe for
vehicles accidentally leaving the traveled way, pleasing in appearance, convey collected
water without damage to the highway or adjacent property and minimize the environmental
impacts.
These considerations are usually so interrelated that optimum conditions cannot be met for
one without compromising one or more of the others. The objective is to achieve a
reasonable balance, but the importance of traffic safety must not be underrated.
There are various types of open channels encountered by the road drainage designer of
highway facilities including:
• Stream channels;
• Chutes;
• Roadside channels or ditches;
• Irrigation channels; and
• Drainage ditches.
The principles of open channel flow hydraulics are applicable to all drainage systems
including culverts.
Stream channels are usually:
• Natural channels with their size and shape determined by natural forces
(morphology);
• Compound in cross section with a main channel for conveying low flows and a
floodplain to transport extreme flood flows; and
• Shaped geomorphologically by the long-term history of the sediment load and
water discharge that they have experienced.
Artificial channels include roadside channels, irrigation channels, and drainage ditches that
areman-made with regular geometric cross sections, andunlined, or lined with artificial or
natural material to protect against erosion.
While the principles of open channel flow are the same regardless of the channel type,
stream channels and artificial channels (primarily roadside channels) are treated separately
in this chapter.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-1

Chapter 6
Hydraulic Design of Open Channels Drainage Design Manual – 2013
6.2 Hydraulic Considerations

An evaluation of hydraulic considerations for channel design alternatives should be made
early in the project development process.The extent of the hydrologic and hydraulic
analysis should be commensurate with the type of highway, complexity of the drainage
facility, and associated costs, risks, and environmental impacts.
The hydraulic design of an open channel consists of developing a channel section to carry
the design discharge under the controlling conditions, adding freeboard as needed and
determining the type of channel protection required to prevent erosion.In addition to
erosion protection, channel linings can be used to increase the hydraulic capacity of the
channel by reducing the channel roughness.
The hydraulic capacity of a drainage channel is dependent on the size, shape, slope and
roughness of the channel section. For a given channel, the hydraulic capacity becomes
greater as the grade or depth of flow increases. The channel capacity decreases as the
channel surface becomes rougher.
A rough channel can sometimes be an advantage on steep slopes where it is desirable to
keep flow velocities from becoming excessively high. A good open channel design
minimizes the effect on existing water surface profiles.
Open channel designs, which lower the water surface elevation, can result in excessive
flow velocities and cause erosion problems. A planned rise in water surface elevation can
cause:
• Objectionable flooding of the road bed and adjacent properties; and
• An environmental and maintenance problem with sedimentation due to reduced
flow velocities.
Additional hydraulic considerations include those of channel and floodwater characteristics
such as movable beds, heavy bed loads and bulking during flood discharges.
6.3 Safety Consideration

An important aspect of highway drainage design is that of traffic safety.The shape of a
roadside channel section should minimize vehicular impact and provide a traversable
section for vehicles leaving the traveled way. The ideal channel section, from a safety
standpoint, will have flattened side slopes and a curved transition to the channel bottom.
Figure 6-1: Errant Vehicles

(Source: TRL,Highway Design Note 1/01)
6.4 Maintenance Consideration

The design of open channels and roadside ditches should recognize that periodic
maintenance inspection and repair is required. Provisions should be incorporated into the
design for access to a channel by maintenance personnel and equipment.
Page 6-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 6
When assessing the need for permanent or temporary access easements, entrance ramps
and gates through the right of way fences, consideration should be given to the size and
type of maintenance equipment required. Damaged channels can be expensive to repair
and interfere with the safe and orderly movement of traffic. Minor erosion damage within
the right of way should be repaired immediately after it occurs and action taken to prevent
the recurrence.
Conditions, which require extensive repair or frequently recurring maintenance, may
require a complete redesign rather than repetitive or extensive reconstruction.The advice of
an Expert Drainage Engineer should be sought when evaluating the need for major
restoration.
The growth of weeds, brush, and trees in a drainage channel can effectively reduce its
hydraulic efficiency.The result being that a portion of the design flow may overflow the
channel banks causing flooding and possible erosion.
Channel work on some projects may be completed several months before total project
completion.During this interim period, the contractor must provide interim protection
measures and possibly advance the planned erosion control program to assure that minor
erosion will not develop into major damage.
Figure 6-2: Damaged side ditch along Assossa Kumruk Road
6.5 Economics
Economical drainage design is achieved by selecting the design alternative which best
satisfies the established design criteria at the lowest cost.
The economic evaluation of design alternatives should be commensurate with the
complexity and importance of the facility.Analysis of the channel location, shape, size, and
materials involved may reveal possibilities for reducing construction costs, flood damage
potential, maintenance problems and environmental impacts.

Chapter 6
6.6 Coordination with Other Agencies

There are many government agencies and private entities engaged in water related
planning, construction and regulation activities whose interests can affect the design of
highway drainage channels.Such agencies may request the channel design satisfy
additional and perhaps governing design criteria.Early coordination with these agencies
may help avoid delays in the project development process.Early coordination may also
reveal opportunities for cooperative projects, which may benefit ERA, Ministry of Water
& Energy, Ministry of Agriculture and private irrigation farm owners.
6.7 Environmental Considerations

Many of the same principles involved in sound highway construction and maintenance of
open channels require environmental considerations. Erosion, sedimentation, water quality,
and aesthetics should be of prime concern to the highway design engineer.
6.8 Alignment and Grade

The highway drainage channel must be located where it will best serve its intended
purpose, using the grade and alignment obtainable at the site. However, abrupt changes in
alignment and grade should be avoided as much as possible.A sharp change in alignment
presents a point of attack for flowing water, and abrupt changes in grade can result in
possible scour when the grade is steepened or deposition of transported material when the
grade is flattened.
Figure 6-3: Erosion at a channel bends (Wollega Region)
Changes in alignment should be made as gradually as possible to introduce the least

amount of unstable flow. When possible, locate horizontal curves where the profile is
flattest. Open channels should be graded to a desirable minimum gradient of 0.005 m/m so
that some slight settlement will not create large areas of standing water. Maximum slopes
should reflect the type of soil and linings to be used especially for grass-lined channels.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-4: Typical grass-lined channel
In principle, a drainage channel should have a flow velocity that neither erodes nor cause
deposition in the channel (refer to Chapter 2, Section 2.17.3 Table 2. 3. This optimum
velocity is dependent on the size and slope of channel, the quantity of flowing water, the
material used to line the channel, the nature of the bedding soil and the sediment being
transported by the flow.
Figure 6-5: Points of discharge
The point of discharge into a natural watercourse requires special attention. Water entering
a natural watercourse from a highway drainage channel should not cause eddies with
attendant scour of the natural watercourse.In erodible embankment soils, if the flow line of
the drainage channel is appreciably higher than that of the watercourse at the point of
discharge, then the use of a spillway is advisable to prevent erosion of the channel.
6.9 Channel Section
6.9.1 Natural Channels

Natural channels are water conveying sections such as streams, rivers, and swales which
have been formed by natural forces. Good drainage design involving natural channels will
ensure that the existing flow characteristics are retained such as size and shape of channel,
flow velocities, and flow distributions.
Channel cross sections at roadside locations should be determined by hydraulic and erosion
considerations to achieve a channel that has adequate capacity for the flow quantity to be

Chapter 6
handled, will require little or no maintenance, will fit in the space available and will be
economically acceptable to construct.
6.9.2 Triangular V-Ditch
Figure 6-6: Cross-sectional shape of triangular channel
Figure 6-7: A non-traversable drainage V-ditch such as this is a safety hazard
The shape of a channel section is generally determined by considering the intended

purpose, terrain, flow velocity and quantity of flow to be conveyed. The Triangular V-ditch
is intended primarily for low flow conditions such as in median and roadside ditches.V-
shaped ditches are susceptible to erosion and will require lining when flow velocities
exceed the permissible flow velocities in Chapter 2, Table 2.3
6.9.3 Trapezoidal Ditch

The most common channel shape for large flows is the trapezoidal section. Trapezoidal
channels are easily constructed by machinery and are often the most economical to
construct. When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, both traffic safety and aesthetics
can be improved by rounding all angles of the channel cross section with vertical curves.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-8: Triangular drain at Abay Valley

(Addis Ababa –Debre Markos Road, left and Wollega region right)
Figure 6-9: Cross-sectional shape of trapezoidal channels
6.9.4 Rectangular Ditch

Rectangular channels are often used to convey large flows in areas with limited right of
way and at town sections. At some locations, guardrail or other types of positive traffic
barrier may be necessary between the traveled way and the channel.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-10: Typical rectangular ditch north of Addis Ababa
Although rectangular channels are relatively expensive to construct, since the walls must
be designed as earth retaining structures, the construction costs can be somewhat offset by
the reduced costs associated with right of way, materials, and channel excavation.
6.10 Channel Design

Hydraulic design associated with natural channels and roadway ditches is a process that
selects and evaluates alternatives according to established criteria. These criteria are the
standards established to insure that a highway drainage system meets its intended purpose
without endangering the structural integrity of the facility itself and without undue adverse
effects on the environment or the public welfare.
Side drains are essential for the performance of the road and they should be properly
designed. Any savings in design cost will be far outweighed by increased maintenance
costs over the life of the road.
The design of side drains should consider:
• Whether the drain serves the whole width of the road or just half the width;
• Does the drain serve just the road or does it also provide drainage to the adjoining
areas (refer to Figure 6.11);
• The gradient of the road; and
• The nature of the materials the road is crossing: are they easily eroded like silts and
sands or erosion resistant like stiff clays or rock
The designer controls a range of variables to fit the side drains to their environment:
• The channel shape and size;
• Whether or not the channel is lined;
• Whether scour checks are provided and if so their spacing; and
• The spacing of turnouts or side drain relief culverts.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-11: Roadside ditch collecting lateral flows

(At CMC Roundabout, North of Addis Ababa)
6.10.1 Erosion Control

The need for scour checks should be assessed according to the gradient, soil type, velocity
and volume of water in the side drain.
Look for evidence of erosion to assess the severity of the problem and the frequency of
scour checks required.In extreme cases (steep slopes where there is no possibility of using
relief culverts to evacuate water) the side drain will have to be lined in either masonry or
concrete to prevent erosion. Where gullies outlets are proposed, the discharge can be
controlled by using check dams (see figure 6.12) built from rock just downstream of the
gully outlet. Gabion baskets should be used for stability in deeper gullies.
Figure 6-12: Check dams in Tigray Region on the left and in Gojam on the right
6.10.2 Turnouts
Although it is more of a construction rather than a design issue, it is best practice to leave a
solid bund of earth to dam the drain downstream of the turnout. If drains are being built by
hand then a short section of drain can be left un-excavated to provide the bund (refer to
Figure 13).
The frequency of turnouts is controlled by various factors.On flat ground, the capacity of
the side drain is critical: turnouts are required to prevent the side drain from overflowing.
On sloping ground concentration of flows is critical: as the ground and hence the side drain
becomes steeper more turnouts are required to prevent the flow concentration leading to

Chapter 6
erosion at the end of the turnout.
Figure 6-13: Photo of a Turnout (in Wollega)
6.10.3 Relief Culverts

Relief culverts are different from watercourse culverts. Their purpose is to relieve the flow
from long stretches of side drain ditches located on the uphill side of a road where miter
drains cannot be provided.These culverts should be used where possible instead of using a
long side ditch without relief culverts.
6.10.4 Catch Pit Inlets

Side drain relief culverts are normally provided with a catch pit inlet structure. This is
designed to capture the water flowing along the side drain and turn that flow through 90o.
It then flows under the road and is discharged through an outfall channel.
Figure 6-14: Typical photo of catch pit inlet structure (Gojam)

Chapter 6
6.10.5 Town Section Drainage Channels

The provision of access across drainage channels is often overlooked in Ethiopia. If access
across drainage channels is not provided, people will block the drain if it presents an
obstruction, causing water to flood the road. Therefore, access needs to be considered
carefully at a design stage (refer to figures 6.15, 6.16 and 6.17).
In rural areas a small number of accesses may be required in villages – for a market or
shop for instance.Lined drains with cover slabs are a typical solution (see figure 6.16).
Figure 6-15: Typical town section drainage channels

(Addis Ababa left and Assossa town right)
Junctions with other roads may also need access culverts to maintain continuity of
drainage.The same covered drain detail can be used to avoid raising the road locally to
accommodate larger structures.
6.10.6 Access Type Culverts at a Junction

The purpose of an access culvert is to allow water in side drains to flow under a minor road
where it branches off from the main road at a junction.
• An access culvert will be required if the minor road slopes towards the main road;
• But if the minor road slopes away from the main road the side drains can be
connected.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-16: Typical layout of junction drain ditch design
An access culvert will normally be required at junctions between a feeder road and a
collector road.Crossroads junctions will typically require one or two access culverts unless
located on a natural ridge or saddle. Access to plots or property is usually provided in the
form of access slabs over lined drains.
Figure 6-17: Sample photos of access slabs
6.10.7 Design Considerations

The invert level of an access culvert should be the same as (or slightly lower) than that of
the uphill side drain that needs to be passed under the road.
It is common to provide a bell mouth to allow longer turning vehicles to negotiate the
junction.For reasons of economy, the access culvert is often sited away from the collector
road edge before the bell mouth where the feeder road is of normal width.The collector

Chapter 6
road side drain should be diverted to flow through the access culvert. Such diversions are
frequently lined in stone pitching and may have a slightly greater fall than the side drain to
encourage the change in flow direction.
Access culverts should be of just sufficient capacity to accommodate the maximum side
drain flow.
6.11 Design Criteria of Channels

Design criteria establish the standards by which an open channel shall be constructed. They
form the basis for the selection of the final design configuration. Listed below are
examples of design criteria that shall be considered for channel design.
6.11.1 Stream Channels

The following design criteria apply to natural channels:
• The hydraulic effects of flood plain encroachments shall be evaluated over a full
range of frequency-based peak discharges from the design frequency to the
check/review recurrence intervals on any major highway facility as deemed
necessary by the designer;
• If relocation of a stream channel is unavoidable, the cross-sectional shape,
meander, pattern, roughness, sediment transport, and slope should conform to the
existing conditions as much as practicable. Some form of energy dissipation may
be necessary when existing conditions cannot be duplicated;
• Stream bank stabilization shall be provided, when appropriate, to any stream
disturbance such as encroachment and should include both upstream and
downstream banks and the local site; and
• Features, such as dikes and levees, associated with natural channel modifications
should have a 5-meter minimum top width with access for maintenance equipment.
Vehicle turning points shall be provided no further than 500 meters apart and at the
end of any such feature.
Figure 6-18: Sample photo of stream channel
6.11.2 Roadside Channels

Side drains Keep water off the surface of the road and keep the foundations of the road dry.
Effective side drains will reduce the need for maintenance by preventing deterioration of
the surface and will provide a drier and hence safer road.

Chapter 6
If the side drains are missing or not working then, water running along or across the road
may lead to gully erosion.The foundations may get wet and soft leading to rutting.
A common reason that side drains stop working is that people crossing the drain block
them: either vehicles driving across the drain and damaging it or pedestrians trying to make
walking over it easier.
Water Disposal
Side drains collect runoff water.That water then has to be discharged from the drain. This
can be either:
• To the adjoining ground by means of a turnout; or
• Across the road to the side drain on the downstream side of the road via a side drain
relief culvert.
The position and number of turnouts should be indicated on the design drawings.The final
location should be determined by site inspection so they are provided where they will
work.
Erosion Control
Side drains channel water and concentrate flows, especially where water is discharged via
turnouts.Scour of the side drains, if not controlled, can lead to the formation of gullies that
eventually can become so deep that the road may have to be abandoned. The construction
of simple scour checks and check dams in the side drains will reduce velocity, remove silt,
and allow vegetation to become established thus controlling erosion.
Erosion downstream of turnouts can affect not only the road but also the adjoining land. To
prevent erosion provide sufficient turnouts to disperse the flow and provide erosion
protection where necessary.
Channel Location and Type
Assuming adequate functional design, the next most important design consideration is
channel location. Locations that avoid poorly drained areas, unstable soil conditions, and
frequently flooded areas can greatly reduce drainage related problems.
Often drainage and open channel considerations are not considered the primary decision
factors in the roadway location; however, they are factors, which will often directly or
indirectly affect many other considerations. Often minor alignment adjustments can avoid
serious drainage problems.
If a channel can be located far enough away from the highway, the concerns of traffic
safety and aesthetics can be somewhat mitigated.The cost of additional right of way may
be offset somewhat by the reduced cost of erosion control, traffic protection, and
landscaping.
Ditches should be located where they can fully intercept the flow from the natural
catchments adjacent to the road. The location of ditches is mainly dependent on the space
available. Possible locations are:
• Along the edge of the road;
• Along the top of cuttings; or
• At the toe of embankments.

Chapter 6
In cuttings, ditches should preferably be positioned at the top of the cuttings to avoid
potential erosion of the slope by surface water. Large sized ditches may create stability
problems in the cutting slope and, therefore, appropriate measures should be taken.
Figure 6-19: Typical Road Side Ditch Locations
Where ditches are located alongside the road, they may be designed to convey the runoff
from the carriageway as well as that of the natural catchment. Ditches should preferably
consist of earth channels lined with a native grass species (or combination of species), in
order to provide adequate resistance to flow erosion. However, this depends on the
availability of water throughout the year in order for the native grass to grow.
The following design criteria apply to roadside channels:
• Channel side slopes shall not exceed the angle of repose of the soil and/or lining
and shall be 2:1 or flatter in the case of rock-riprap lining. Stone pitching or grouted
riprap must be used for channel side slopes steeper than 2:1;
• Flexible linings shall be calculated using the method of allowable tractive force;
• The design discharge frequency for permanent, roadside, ditch linings and for
temporary linings shall be per Table 2.1, Chapter 2; and
• Channel freeboard shall be 0.3 meters.
6.12 Open Channel Flow

Design analysis of both natural and artificial channels proceeds according to the basic
principles of open channel flow. The basic principles of fluid mechanics continuity,
momentum, and energy can be applied to open channel flow with the additional
complication that the position of the free surface is usually one of the unknown variables.
The determination of this unknown is one of the principle problems of open channel flow
analysis and it depends on quantification of the flow resistance. Natural channels display a
much wider range of roughness values than artificial channels. The drainage designer is
expected to posses the knowledge of theoretical principles of open channel flow; hence
most of the theoretical equation are not included in this chapter. The designer should refer
to open channel flow textbooks for theoretical background information.

Chapter 6
6.12.1 Flow Classification

The classification of open channel flow is summarized as follows:
Steady Flow
• Uniform Flow;
• Non uniform Flow;
o Gradually Varied Flow;
o Rapidly Varied Flow.
Unsteady Flow
• Unsteady Uniform Flow (rare);
• Unsteady Non uniform Flow;
o Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow;
o Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow.
The steady uniform flow case and the steady non uniform flow case are the most
fundamental types of flow treated in highway engineering hydraulics.
6.12.2 Equations
The following equations are those most commonly used to analyze open channel flow and
are included here.
Continuity Equation– The continuity equation is the statement of mass in fluid
mechanics. For the special case of one dimensional, steady flow of an incompressible fluid,
it assumes the form:
= = (6-1)
Where
Q = discharge, m3/s
A = cross-sectional area of flow, m2
V = mean cross-sectional velocity, m/s (which is perpendicular to the cross
section). Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to successive cross sections along the flow path.
Manning’s Equation –For a given depth of flow in a channel with a steady, uniform flow,
the mean velocity, V, can be computed with Manning’s equation:

=
/ / (6-2)
Where
V = velocity, m/s
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the energy gradeline, m/m (note: for steady uniform flow,
S = channel slope, m/m)

Chapter 6
The selection of Manning’s ‘n’ is generally based on observation; however, considerable

experience is essential in selecting appropriate ‘n’ values. The range of ‘n’ values for
various types of channels and floodplains is given in Table 6-1. A further guide to the
selection of ‘n’ values is the series of channel Photographs 6.1- 6.8 following Table 6.1.
For a given channel geometry, slope, and roughness, and a specified value of discharge Q,
a unique value of depth occurs in steady uniform flow. It is called the normal depth. The
normal depth is used to design artificial channels in steady, uniform flow and is computed
from Manning’s Equation:

=
/ / (6-3)
Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
A = cross-sectional area of flow, m2
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = channel slope, m/m
If the normal depth computed from Manning’s Equation is greater than critical depth, the
slope is classified as a mild slope. Conversely, if the normal depth is less than critical
depth, the slope is a steep slope. Thus, uniform flow is subcritical on a mild slope and
supercritical on a steep slope.
6.12.3 Channel Conveyance

In channel analysis, it is often convenient to group the channel properties in a single term
called the channel conveyance K:
/
=
(6-4)
and then Manning’s Equation can be written as:
= / (6-5)
The conveyance represents the carrying capacity of a stream cross-section based upon its
geometry and roughness characteristics alone and is independent of the streambed slope.
The concept of channel conveyance is useful when computing the distribution of overbank
flood flows in the stream cross section and the flow distribution through the opening in a
proposed stream crossing. Manning’s Equation should not be used for determining high-
water elevations in a bridge opening.

Chapter 6
Energy Equation - The energy equation expresses conservation of energy in open channel
flow as energy per unit weight of fluid that has a dimension of head and it therefore called
energy head. The energy head is composed of potential energy head (elevation head),
pressure head, and kinetic energy head (velocity head). These energy heads are scalar
quantities that give the total energy head at any cross section when added. In comparing an
upstream open channel cross section designated 1 and a downstream cross section
designated 2, the energy equation is:

ℎ + ∝

= ℎ + ∝

+ ℎ (6-6)
Where:
h1 and h2 = the upstream and downstream stages, respectively, m
α = kinetic energy correction coefficient
V = mean velocity, m/s
hL = head loss due to local cross-sectional changes (minor loss) as well
asboundary resistance, m
The stage ‘h’ is the sum of the elevation head ‘z’ at the channel bottom and the pressure
head, or depth of flow ‘y,’ i.e. h = z + y. The terms in the energy equation are illustrated
graphically in Figure 6-2. The energy equation states that the total energy head at an
upstream cross section is equal to the energy head at a downstream section plus the
intervening energy head loss. The energy equation can only be applied between two cross
sections at which the streamlines are nearly straight and parallel so that vertical
accelerations can be neglected.
Figure 6-20: Terms in the Energy Equation
(Source: R A Crowder FDG2 – Chapter 7, 2009)

Chapter 6
6.13 Hydraulic Analysis

Hydraulic design is about ensuring that drainage structures are selected to avoid flooding,
that there is sufficient space for the water to flow at times of flood. It is also about avoiding
potential problems such as erosion and siltation.
The hydraulic analysis of a channel determines the depth and velocity at which a given
discharge will flow in a channel of known geometry, roughness, and slope. The depth and
velocity of flow are necessary for the design or analysis of channel linings and highway
drainage structures.
6.13.1 Hydraulic Analysis Methods

Two methods are commonly used in hydraulic analysis of open channels. The Single-
Section method is a simple application of Manning’s Equation to determine tailwater rating
curves for culverts, or to analyze other situations in which uniform or nearly uniform flow
conditions exist. The Step-Backwater method is used to compute the complete water
surface profile in a stream reach to evaluate the unrestricted water surface elevations for
bridge hydraulic design, or to analyze other gradually varied flow problems in streams.
The single-section method will generally yield less reliable results because it requires more
judgment and assumption than the step-backwater method. In many designs, however, the
single-section method is all that is justified, for example, for a standard roadway ditch,
culvert, storm drain outfall, etc.
6.13.2 Computer Programs

A computer program best performs hydraulic analysis of open channel problems. The
recommended personal computer program is the US Army Corps of Engineers HEC-RAS
River Analysis System. The Program was specifically developed for analysis of Highway
Bridge and culvert backwater analysis.HEC-RAS is designed to perform one-dimensional
hydraulic calculations for a full network of natural and constructed channels. HEC-RAS is
capable of importing GIS/CAD data. For more information on computer programs refer to
Chapter 15.
Another open channel modelling software is ISIS. ISIS is a full hydrodynamic simulator
for modelling flows and levels in open channels. ISIS is able to model complex looped and
branched networks, and is designed to provide a comprehensive range of methods for
simulating floodplain flows. ISIS incorporates both unsteady and steady flow solvers, with
options that include simple backwaters, flow routing and full unsteady simulation. The
simulation engine provides a direct steady-state solver and adaptive time-stepping methods
to optimize run-time and enhance model stability.
ERA should adapt standard software program to be used in all its drainage design works.
HEC-RAS should be used in all routing design except minor ditches. Based on our
assessment, only a minority of drainage designers use software for hydraulic analysis. The
current drainage design practice in Ethiopia is based on manual calculation in the form of
spreadsheet. It is recommended that drainage engineers to adopt hydraulic analysis
software in the design of road drainage systems.
The mathematical equations provided in this manual are embedded in the software
program; however, some of these equations have been retained in the manual as the
majority of drainage designers in Ethiopia use tradition manual calculation methods. Once
the skill in the use of software programs is developed in the country, these equations
should be used for information only.

Chapter 6
6.13.3 Manning’s ‘n’ Value Selection

Manning’s ‘n’ is affected by many factors and its selection in natural channels depends
heavily on engineering experience. Pictures of channels and flood plains for which the
discharge has been measured and Manning’s ‘n’ has been calculated are very useful (see
Ref. 3 and 4). Once the Manning’s ‘n’ values have been selected, it is highly recommended
that they be verified with historical high water marks and/or gauged stream flow data.
Manning’s ‘n’ values for artificial channels are more easily defined than for natural stream
channels. See Table 6-1 for typical ‘n’ values for both artificial and natural stream
channels.Photos 6.1-6.8 following table 6-1 also illustrate various types of channels and
their corresponding Manning’s n.

Chapter 6
Table 6-1: Values of Roughness Coefficient n (Uniform Flow)
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

EXCAVATED OR DREDGED
a. Earth, straight and uniform
1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth, winding and sluggish
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. Dense Weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.025 0.030 0.035
5. Stony bottom and weedy sides 0.025 0.035 0.045
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Backhoe-excavated or dredged
1. No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
2. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut
1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2 Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
NATURAL STREAMS
1 Minor streams (top width at flood stage < 30 m)
a. Streams on Plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rims or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
2. Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
4. Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
5. Same as above, lower stages, more ineffective
slopes and sections 0.040 0.048 0.055
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
8 Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.100 0.150
with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
b. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks
usually steep, trees and brush along banks
submerged at high stages
1. Bottom: gravel, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
2 Flood Plains
a. Pasture, no brush
1. Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
2. High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050

Chapter 6
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

b. Cultivated area
1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. Light brush and trees in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
3. Same as above, but with heavy growth of
spouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees,
little undergrowth, flood stage below 0.080 0.100 0.120
branches
5. Same as above, but with flood stage
reaching branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
3 Major Streams (top width at flood stage > 30 m).
The n value is less than that for minor streams of
similar description, because banks offer less
effective resistance.
a. Regular section with no boulders or brush 0.025 -- 0.060
b. Irregular and rough section 0.035 -- 0.100
4 Various Open Channel Surfaces
a. Concrete 0.012- 0.020
b. Gravel bottom with:
Concrete 0.020
Mortared stone 0.023
Riprap 0.033
c. Natural Stream Channels
Clean, straight stream 0.030
Clean, winding stream 0.040
Winding with weeds and pools 0.050
With heavy brush and timber 0.100
d. Flood Plains
Pasture 0.035
Field Crops 0.040
Light Brush and Weeds 0.050
Dense Brush 0.070
Dense Trees 0.100

Chapter 6
Photo 6-1: n = 0.045
Photo 6-2: n = 0.035
Photo 6-3: n = 0.08

Chapter 6
Photo 6-4: n = 0.05
Photo 6-5: n = 0.1
Photo 6-6: n = 0.07

Chapter 6
Photo 6-7: n = 0.08
Photo 6-8: n = 0.15
6.13.4 Calibration
Equations can be calibrated to ensure that they accurately represent local channel
conditions. However, the calibration process requires a large amount of data, including
cross-sections, recorded water levels and flow rates. It should be considered if the failure
of a facility would increase risk to life or property.
The calibration process involves varying input parameters until a good agreement exists
between measured and simulated values. Hydraulic parameters which are varied include
roughness coefficients and expansion and contraction coefficients. The parameter with the
greatest influence on water levels is the Manning roughness coefficient.
6.13.5 Switchback Phenomenon

If the cross section is improperly subdivided, the mathematics of the Manning’s Equation
causes a switchback. A switchback results when the calculated discharge decreases with an
associated increase in elevation. This occurs when, with a minor increase in water depth,
there is a large increase of wetted perimeter. Simultaneously, there is a corresponding
small increase in cross-sectional area which causes a net decrease in the hydraulic radius
from the value it had for a lesser water depth. With the combination of the lower hydraulic
radius and the slightly larger cross-sectional area, a discharge is computed which is lower
Chapter 6
than the discharge based upon the lower water depth. More subdivisions within such cross-
sections should be used in order to avoid the switchback.
This phenomenon can occur in any type of conveyance computation, including the step-
backwater method. Computer logic can be seriously confused if a switchback were to
occur in any cross-section being used in a step backwater program. For this reason, the
cross-section should always be subdivided with respect to both vegetation and geometric
changes. Note that the actual n-value, itself, may be the same in adjacent subsections (refer
to example, calculations for further details).
6.13.6 Single-Section Analysis Method (Slope-Area Method)

The single-section analysis method (slope-area method) is simply a solution of Manning’s
Equation for the normal depth of flow given the discharge and cross-section properties
including geometry, slope, and roughness. It implicitly assumes the existence of steady,
uniform flow, however, uniform flow rarely exists in either artificial or stream channels.
Nevertheless, the single-section method is often used to design artificial channels for
uniform flow as a first approximation, and to develop a stage-discharge rating curve in a
stream channel for tailwater determination at a culvert or storm drain outlet.
A stage-discharge curve is a graphical relationship between stream-flow depth or elevation

and discharge at a specific point on a stream. This relationship should cover a range of
discharges up to at least the base (100-year) flood. The stage-discharge curve can be
determined as follows:
• Select the typical cross-section at or near the location where the stage-discharge
curve is needed;
• Assign a roughness coefficient (Manning’s n-value) as described above;
• Estimate water-surface slope: since uniform flow is assumed, the average slope of
the streambed can usually be used;
• Apply a range of incremental water surface elevations to the cross-section;
• Calculate the discharge using Manning’s Equation for each incremental
elevation.Total discharge at each elevation is the sum of the discharges from each
subsection at that elevation; in determining hydraulic radius, the wetted perimeter
shall be measured only along the solid boundary of the cross-section and not along
the vertical water interface between subsections; and
• After the discharge has been calculated at several incremental elevations, a plot of
stage versus discharge shall be made, this plot is the stage-discharge curve and it
can be used to determine the water-surface elevation corresponding to the design
discharge or other discharge of interest.
Channels can also be sized using the charts listed as Charts 6-1 through 6-3 at the end of
this chapter, for differing shapes, linings, widths, side slopes, linings, and channel slopes.

Chapter 6
In stream channels the transverse variation of velocity in any cross section is a function of
subsection geometry and roughness and may vary considerably from one stage and
discharge to another. It is important to know this variation when designing erosion control
measures and locating relief openings in highway fills, for example. The best method of
establishing transverse velocity variations is by current meter measurements. If this is not
possible, the single section method can be used, whereby the cross section is divided into
subsections of relatively uniform roughness and geometry. It is assumed that the energy
grade line slope is the same across the cross section so that the total conveyance KT of the
cross section is the sum of the subsection conveyances:
= + + ⋯ + (6-7)
1/2
The total discharge is then KtS and the discharge in each subsection is proportional to its
conveyance. The velocity in each subsection is obtained from the continuity equation,
V = Q/A.
Alluvial channels present a more difficult problem in establishing stage-discharge relations
by the single-section method because the bed itself is deformable and may generate bed
forms such as ripples and dunes in lower regime flows. These bed forms are highly
variable with the addition of form resistance, and selection of a value of Manning’s ‘n’ is
not straightforward. Instead, several methods (Ref. 35) have been developed for this case
and shall be followed unless it is possible to obtain a measured stage-discharge relation.
There may be locations where a stage-discharge relationship has already been measured in
a channel. These could exist at gauging stations on streams monitored by the Ministry of
Water and Energy. Measured stage-discharge curves will generally yield more accurate
estimates of water surface elevation and should take precedence over the analytical
methods described above.
6.13.7 Step-Backwater Analysis

Step-backwater analysis is useful for determining unrestricted water surface profiles where
a highway crossing is planned, and for analyzing how far upstream the water surface
elevations are affected by a culvert or bridge. Because the calculations involved in this
analysis are tedious and repetitive, a computer program such as U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers HEC-RAS can be used to assist with the equations.
The method requires definition of the geometry and roughness of each cross section.
Manning’s n-values can vary both horizontally across the section as well as vertically.
Expansion and contraction head loss coefficients, variable main channel and overbank flow
lengths, and the method of averaging the slope of the energy grade line can all be specified.
To develop the methodology, the energy equation is repeated from Section 6.4:

ℎ + ∝

= ℎ + ∝

+ ℎ (6-8)
Where:
h1, h2=the upstream and downstream stages, respectively, m
α=velocity distribution coefficient
V=mean velocity, m/s
hL=head loss due to local cross-sectional changes (minor loss) as well as boundary
resistance, m

Chapter 6
The stage ‘h’ is the sum of the elevation head ‘z’ at the channel bottom and the pressure
head, or depth of flow y, i.e., h = z+y. The energy equation is solved between successive
stream reaches with nearly uniform roughness, slope, and cross-sectional properties.
The total head loss is calculated from:
=
(∝ ) (∝ )

−
$ + % & (6-9)
Where:
Km = expansion or contraction loss coefficient.
Sf = mean slope of the energy grade line evaluated from Manning’s equation and a
selected averaging technique m/m
L = discharge-weighted or conveyance-weighted reach length, m
These equations are solved numerically in a systematic procedure called the Standard Step
Method from one cross section to the next.
Water surface profile computation requires a beginning value for elevation or depth
(boundary condition) and proceeds upstream for subcritical flow and downstream for
supercritical flow. In the case of supercritical flow, critical depth is often the boundary
condition at the control section, but in subcritical flow, uniform flow and normal depth
may be the boundary condition. The starting depth in this case can be found either by the
single-section method (slope-area method) or by computing the water surface profile
upstream to the desired location for several starting depths and the same discharge. These
profiles should converge toward the desired normal depth at the control section to establish
one point on the stage-discharge relation. If the profiles do not converge, then the stream
reach may need to be extended downstream, a shorter cross-section interval shall be used,
or the range of starting water surface elevations shall be adjusted.In any case, a plot of the
convergence profiles can be a very useful tool in such an analysis (see Figure 6.21).
Given a sufficiently long stream reach, the water surface profile computed by step-
backwater will converge to normal depth at some point upstream for subcritical flow.
Establishment of the upstream and downstream boundaries of the stream reach is required
to define limits of data collection and subsequent analysis. Calculations must begin
sufficiently far downstream to assure accurate results at the structure site, and continued a
sufficient distance upstream to determine accurately the impact of the structure on
upstream water surface profiles(refer to chapter 4 how to define limits of data collection).
Refer to Figure 6-21.

Chapter 6
Figure 6-21:: Profile Convergence Pattern Backwater Computation
6.13.8 Water and Sediment Routing

Water and sediment routing methods should be employed where possible scour and/or
sediment are of concern. It is generally not used at stable stream
stream locations.Various
computer models can be employed to investigate water and sediment routing.The latest
version of HEC-RAS
RAS has a sediment transport-modeling
transport modeling module. The scour or deposits in
each stream tube, determined by sediment routing, will give the variation of channel
geometry in the vertical direction.
6.14 Channel Design Procedure

The design procedures for all types of channels have many similar elements; however each
type of channel will require unique inputs. This section will:
• Outline a process for assessing a natural stream channel: and
• Offer
ffer a more specific design procedure for roadside channels.
6.14.1 Stream Channels

The analysis of a stream channel, in most cases, takes place in conjunction with the design
of a highway hydraulic structure such as a cuculvert
lvert or bridge. In general, the objective is to
convey the water along or under the highway in such a manner that will not cause damage
to the highway, stream, or adjacent property. An assessment of the existing channel is
usually necessary to determine the
the potential for problems that might result from a proposed
action. The detail of studies necessary shall be commensurate with the risk associated with
the action and the environmental sensitivity of the stream and adjoining flood plain.
Although the following step--by-stepstep procedure may not be appropriate for all possible
applications, it does outline a process that, in general, will be applicable.
Step 1 Assemble Site Data and Project File (Consult Chapter 4 for more details)
A. Data Collection
• Topographic,, site, and location maps
• Roadway profile
• Photographs
• Field reviews
• Design data at nearby structures
• Gauging records.
Chapter 6
B. Studies by other agencies

• Ministry of Water and Energy studies
• Ministry of Agriculture studies
• Floodplain studies
• Catchment area studies
• River Basin Master Plan studies.
C. Environmental constraints
• Floodplain encroachment
• Floodway designation
• Fish habitat
• Commitments in review documents.
D. Design criteria
• See Section 6.11.
Step 2 Determine the Project Scope
A. Determine level of assessment
• Stability of existing channel
• Potential for damage
• Sensitivity of the stream.
B. Determine type of hydraulic analysis
• Qualitative assessment
• Single-section analysis
• Step-backwater analysis.
C. Determine additional survey information
• Extent of streambed profiles
• Locations of cross sections
• Elevations of flood-prone property (threshold level)
• Details of existing structures
• Properties of bed and bank materials.
Step 3 Evaluate Hydrologic Variables
A. Compute discharges for selected frequencies
B. Consult Hydrology, Chapter 5.
Step 4 Perform Hydraulic Analysis
A. Single-section analysis (6.14.6)
• Select representative cross section (6.14.6)
• Select appropriate n values (Table 6-1)
• Compute stage-discharge relationship.
B. Step-backwater analysis (6.14.6)
C. Calibrate with known high water marks.
Step 5 Perform Stability Analysis
A. Geomorphic factors
B. Hydraulic factors
C. Stream response to change.

Chapter 6
Step 6 Design Countermeasures

A. Criteria for selection
• Erosion mechanism
• Stream characteristics
• Construction and maintenance requirements
• Vandalism considerations
• Cost.
B. Types of countermeasures
• Meander migration countermeasures
• Bank stabilization
• Bend control countermeasures
• Channel braiding countermeasures
• Degradation countermeasures
• Aggradation countermeasures.
C. For additional information
• HEC-20 Stream Stability
• Highways in the River Environment
• See Reference List.
Step 7 Documentation
• Prepare report and file with background information.
6.14.2 Roadside Channels

Each project is unique, but the following six basic design steps are normally applicable:
Step 1 Establish a Roadside Plan
A. Collect available site data
B. Obtain or prepare existing and proposed plan-profile layout including highway,
culverts, bridges, etc.
C. Determine and plot on the plan the locations of natural basin divides and roadside
channel outlets. An example of a roadside channel plan/profile is shown in Figure
6.9; and
D. Perform the layout of the proposed roadside channels to minimize diversion flow
lengths.
Step 2 Obtain or Establish Cross Section Data
A. Provide channel depth adequate to drain the sub-base
B. Choose channel side slopes based on geometric design criteria including safety,
economics, soil, aesthetics, and access;
C. Establish cross sectional area required and determine appropriate ditch shape and
size;
D. Identify features that may restrict cross section design:
• Right-of-way limits, trees or environmentally-sensitive areas;
• Utilities, and existing drainage facilities.

Chapter 6
Step 3 Determine initial channel grades

A. Plot initial grades on plan-profile layout (Slopes in roadside ditch in cuts are usually
controlled by highway grades)
B. Provide minimum grade of 0.3 percent. Note that this gradient does not necessarily
need to be equal to the roadway gradient.
C. Consider influence of type of lining on grade
D. Where possible, avoid features that may influence or restrict grade, such as utility
locations
Step 4 Check flow capacities and adjust as necessary
A. Compute the design discharge at the downstream end of a channel segment (see
Hydrology, Chapter 5)
B. Set preliminary values of channel size, roughness coefficient, and slope
C. Determine maximum allowable depth of channel including freeboard
D. Check flow capacity using Manning’s Equation and single section analysis
E. If capacity is inadequate, possible adjustments are as follows:
• Increase bottom width;
• Make channel side slopes flatter;
• Make channel slope steeper;
• Provide smoother channel lining; and
• Install drop inlets and a parallel storm drain pipe beneath the channel to supplement
channel capacity.
F. Provide smooth transitions at changes in channel cross sections
G. Provide extra channel storage where needed to replace floodplain storage and/or to
reduce peak discharge.
Step 5 Determine channel lining/protection needed (HEC-15)
A. Select a lining and determine the permissible shear stress τp in Pascals (N/m2) from
Table 6-2 and/or Table 6-3
B. Estimate the flow depth and choose an initial Manning’s n value from Table 6-4
C. Calculate normal flow depth yo (m) at design discharge using Manning’s Equation
and compare with the estimated depth. If they do not agree, repeat Steps 5B and 5C
D. Compute maximum shear stress at normal depth as:
τd (Pa) = 2990 yo S where S = channel slope, m/m
E. If τd<τp then lining is acceptable, otherwise consider the following options:
• Choose a more resistant lining,
• Use concrete, gabions, or other more rigid lining either as full lining or composite,
• Decrease channel slope,
• Decrease slope in combination with drop structures, and/or
• Increase channel width and/or flatten side slopes.
Step 6 Analyze outlet points and downstream effects
A. Identify any adverse impacts to downstream properties that may result from one of
the following at the channel outlet:
• Increase or decrease in discharge,
• Increase in velocity of flow,
• Confinement of sheet flow,
• Change in outlet water quality, or
• Diversion of flow from another catchment area

Chapter 6
B. Mitigate any adverse impacts identified in 6A, possibilities include:

• Enlarge outlet channel and/or install control structures to provide detention of
increased runoff in channel,
• Install velocity control structures,
• Increase capacity and/or improve lining of downstream channel,
• Install sedimentation/infiltration basins,
• Install sophisticated weirs or other outlet devices to redistribute concentrated
channel flow, and
• Eliminate diversions that result in downstream damage and which cannot be
mitigated in a less expensive manner.
6.15 Stream Morphology

The three-dimensional form assumed by a natural stream is a function of many variables
for which cause-and-effect relationships are difficult to establish. The stream may
discharge the same amount of sediment that it receives although there may be short-term
adjustments in its bed forms in response to flood flows. On the other hand, the stream
reach may be aggrading or degrading as a result of deposits or scour in the reach. The plan-
form of the stream may be straight, braided, or meandering. The complexities of stream
morphology can be assessed by inspecting aerial photographs and topographic maps for
changes in slope, width, depth, meander form, and bank erosion with time.
A qualitative assessment of the river response to proposed highway facilities is possible
through a thorough knowledge of river mechanics and accumulation of engineering
experience.
Table 6-2: Classification of Vegetal Covers as to Degrees of Retardancy
Retardance Cover Condition

A Native grass Excellent stand, tall >750 mm
B Native grass Good stand, tall (average 300 – 600 mm)
C Native grass Good stand, uncut 150 – 300 mm
D Native grass Good stand, uncut 50 – 150 mm
E Native grass Good stand, cut to 40 mm, Stubble

Chapter 6
Table 6-3: Summary of Shear Stress for Various Protection Measures
Protective Cover Category τp (Pa)

Class A 177
Class B 101
Vegetation Class C 48
Class D 29
Class E 17
Woven Paper 7
Jute Net 22
Temporary Straw W/Net 69
Curled Wood Mat 74
Synthetic Mat 96
Gravel: D50 = 25 mm 19
D50 = 50 mm 38
Rock: D50 = 150 mm 120
D50 = 300 mm 239
Gabions 1676
Geoweb 479
Soil Cement (8%) >2155
Concrete construction blocks, granular filter under layer >958
Wedge-shaped blocks with drainage slot >1197

Chapter 6
Table 6-4: Manning’s Roughness Coefficients (HEC-15)

n – value : Depth Ranges
Lining Category Lining Type 0-0.15m 0.15–0.06m > 0.6m
Concrete 0.015 0.013 0.013
Grouted Riprap 0.040 0.030 0.028
Rigid Stone Masonry 0.042 0.032 0.030
Soil Cement 0.025 0.022 0.020
Asphalt 0.018 0.016 0.016
Bare Soil 0.023 0.020 0.020
Unlined
Rock Cut 0.045 0.035 0.025
Woven Paper Net 0.016 0.015 0.015
Jute Net 0.028 0.022 0.019
Fiberglass Roving 0.028 0.022 0.019
Temporary*
Straw with Net 0.065 0.033 0.025
Curled Wood Mat 0.066 0.035 0.028
Synthetic Mat 0.036 0.025 0.021
25 mm D50 0.044 0.033 0.030
Gravel Riprap
50 mm D50 0.066 0.041 0.034
150 mm D50 0.104 0.069 0.035
Rock Riprap
300 mm D50 -- 0.078 0.040
Note: Values listed are representative values for the respective coefficients, n, vary with the
flow depth.
*Some “temporary” linings become permanent when buried.
The natural stream channel will assume a geomorphologic form that will be compatible
with the sediment load and discharge history that it has experienced over time. To the
extent that a highway structure disturbs this delicate balance by encroaching on the natural
channel, the consequences of flooding, erosion, and deposits can be significant and
widespread. The hydraulic analysis of a proposed highway structure should include a
consideration of the extent of these consequences.
6.15.1 Stream Response to Change

The major complicating factors in river mechanics are: 1) the large number of interrelated
variables that can simultaneously respond to natural or imposed changes in a stream
system; and 2) the continual evolution of stream channel patterns, channel geometry, bars,
and forms of bed roughness with changing water and sediment discharge. In order to
understand better the responses of streams to the actions of man and nature, a few simple
hydraulic and geomorphic concepts are presented.
Any natural or artificial change that alters channel slope can result in modifications to the
existing stream pattern. For example, a cutoff of a meander loop decreases channel
sinuosity and increases channel slope. Conversely, it is possible that a slight decrease in
slope could change an unstable braided stream into a meandering one.
The different channel dimensions, shapes, and patterns associated with different quantities
of discharge and amounts of sediment load indicate that as these independent variables
change, major adjustments of channel morphology can be anticipated. Further, a change in
hydrology may cause changes in stream sinuosity, meander wavelength, and channel width
and depth. A long period of channel instability with considerable bank erosion and lateral

Chapter 6
shifting of the channel may be required for the stream to compensate for the hydrologic
change.
6.15.2 Countermeasure
A countermeasure is defined as a measure incorporated into the crossing of a stream to
control, inhibit, change, delay, or minimize stream and bride stability problems.
Countermeasures may be installed at the time of highway construction or retrofitted to
resolve stability problems at existing crossings.
The practice of retrofitting makes good economic sense and in many locations it is also
good engineering practice. This is because the magnitude, location, and nature of potential
stability problems are not always discernible at the design stage, and indeed, may take a
period of several years to develop.
The selection of an appropriate countermeasure for a specific bank erosion problem is
dependent on factors such as the erosion mechanism, stream characteristics, construction
and maintenance requirements, potential for vandalism, and costs. Below is a brief
discussion of possible countermeasures for some common river stability problems.
Note: The reader is encouraged to consult with the references listed at the end of this
chapter for detailed information on the design and construction of countermeasures.
The best countermeasure against meander migration is a crossing location on a relatively
straight reach of stream between bends. Other countermeasures include the protection of an
existing bank line, the establishment of a new flow line or alignment, and the control and
constriction of channel flow. Countermeasures identified for bank stabilization and bend
control are bank revetments, spurs, retardant structures, longitudinal dikes, vane dikes,
bulkheads, and channel relocations. Measures may be used individually or in combination
to combat meander migration at a site (Refs. 30 and 21).
Countermeasures used at a braided stream are usually intended to confine the multiple
channels to one channel. This tends to increase sediment transport capacity in the principal
channel and encourage deposits in secondary channels.
The measures usually consist of dikes constructed from the limits of the multiple channels
to the channel over which the bridge is constructed. These include spur dikes at bridge
ends used in combination with revetments on highway fill slopes; rip rap only on highway
fill slopes; and spurs arranged in the stream channels to constrict flow to one channel.
6.15.3 Degradation and Aggradation

Degradation in streams can cause the loss of bridge piers in stream channels, as well as
piers and abutments in caving banks. A check dam, which is a mini dam or weir
constructed across a channel, is one of the most successful techniques for halting
degradation on small to medium streams.
Longitudinal stone dikes placed at the toe of channel banks can be effective
countermeasures for bank caving in degrading streams. Precautions to prevent outflanking
such as tiebacks to the banks, may be necessary where installations are limited to the
vicinity of the highway stream crossing. In general, channel lining alone is not a successful
countermeasure against degradation problems (Ref. 21).
Current measures in use to alleviate aggradation problems at highways include
channelization, bridge modification, continued maintenance, or any combination of these.
Channelization may include excavating and cleaning channels, constructing cutoffs to

Chapter 6
increase the local slope, constructing flow control structures to reduce and control the local
channel width, and constructing relief channels to improve flow capacity at the crossing.
Except for relief channels, these measures are intended to increase the sediment transport
capacity of the channel, thus reducing or eliminating problems with aggradation.
6.16 Design of Outfalls for Surface Water Channels

Surface water channels for drainage of run-off from highways can be a suitable alternative
to conventional kerbs and gullies or filter drains.Amongst other advantages, such as
providing separate systems for drainage of surface and sub-surface water, they allow
greater distances between outlets when compared with conventional gully systems.
This section describes suitable layouts for outlets from triangular and trapezoidal surface
water channels and provides methods of designing each type according to the flow rate in
the channel.
The design methods enable the performance of the outlets to be assessed for channel-full
conditions and for surcharging conditions when the flow may extend to the edge of the
carriageway.The channel-full conditions are normally specified to correspond to storms
with a return period of 1 year whereas the surcharged situation typically refers to storms
with a return period of 5 years.It should be noted that surcharging is not allowed for
channels built in the central reserve.
The design methods apply to symmetrical triangular channels with cross-falls of 1:5 and
also channels with a trapezoidal cross-section and cross-falls of 1:4.5 or 1:5. High capacity
channels are required for drainage of wide roads and long lengths with flat gradients.In
such situations, trapezoidal cross-sections provide higher capabilities than triangular
channels of the same depth and surface width. The trapezoidal channels considered have a
base width equal to twice the channel-full depth. In order to promote self- cleansing
conditions, the base of the channel has a cross-fall of 1:40 towards the verge (or central
reserve).
The channel shape can be modified at the outlet to accommodate gratings in the invert by
steepening the sides of the channel locally to slopes not exceeding the allowable limit of
1:4. Figures B1 and B2 in Appendix A show the cross-sectional shapes of the recommended
channels.As shown in these figures, y1 is the depth of the channel from the lower edge of
the carriageway, y2 is the depth of the channel from the upper edge of the carriageway, and
y3 is the overall depth of the surcharged channel.
Three alternative geometries of outlet are recommended.One is an in-line outlet, where the
water is essentially collected symmetrically either side of the channel invert.Another type
is an off-line outlet, where the channel is widened away from the carriageway and the
outlet is off-set from the centreline of the channel.
A third type of outlet, a weir outlet, is recommended for steep slopes (typically >1:5)
where the water is made to curve towards a side-weir.

Chapter 6
6.16.1 Flow Conditions Approaching Outlet

The flow rate to use in the design of the outlets should be calculated using Manning's
resistance equation:
/ /
=
'
where Q is the flow rate (m3/s); A is the cross-sectional area of the flow (m2), S is the
longitudinal gradient of the channel(m/m); and n is the Manning roughness coefficient.
The hydraulic radius R is defined by:

=
(
where P is the wetted perimeter, ie the perimeter of the channel in contact with the water
flow. If the longitudinal gradient of the channel is not uniform along its length, an
equivalent value of the slope, S, should be used in the calculation of the flow rate.
When checking for surcharged conditions, the flow rate, Qs , to use in the design of outlets
can beestimated from Figure B3 for triangular channels and Figure B4 for trapezoidal
channels. In these Figures Bd and Qd are respectively the surface width of the flow and the
discharge corresponding to the design capacity of the channel.Qd is equal to the value of Q
given by Manning’s Equation when A and R correspondsto the design depth of flow, y1, in
the channel (measured from the invert centerline to the lower edge of the carriageway).The
curves in Figures B3 and B4 in Appendix 6A are based on 1m width of surcharging of the
carriageway at cross-falls of 1:30, 1:40 and 1:60.The value of Qs /Qd can be read off the
curves and, with Qs calculated using Manning’s Equation, the value of Qd can then be
determined.
6.16.2 Types of Outlets

Channels outlets can be defined as intermediate or terminal according to their position
along a channel. Terminal outlets are located at low points along a length of channel and
should be designed to collect all the flow carried by the channel. Intermediate outlets are
located at points part-way along a length of channel where the flow rate of water from the
road reaches the carrying capacity of the channel.
The design methods in this section are based on a minimum value of the waterway area
(defined as the total area of openings) in relation to the plan area of the grating. If G is the
width of the grating, the minimum waterway area needed to produce the required hydraulic
performance is 0.44G2. The efficiencies of outlets comprising grating with bigger
waterway areas and similar bar patterns will not be less that given by these methods.
Alternative designs of in-line and off-line outlets are recommended for each of the two
types of channels (triangular and rectangular).For triangular channels the inline outlet
recommeneded is generally more efficient than the off-line outlet but resason for chusing
between them will mainly depend on construction aspects.
Other aspects being equal, in-line outlets are poreferable to off-line outlets since they
require a smaller land take. However, in-line and off-line outlets are not suitable for steep
channels where the high kinetic energy of the flow renders gratings less effcetive. In such
situations the flow should be collected by curving it towards an off-line wier.

Chapter 6
Triangular Channels
The in-line outlet geometry recommended for this type of cahnnel consisits of pairs of
gratings positioned on the side slopes of the channel (see Figure B5).The number of pairs
of gratings reqiured will depend on the amount of flow in the channel.More than three
pairs of gratings are likely to be uneconomical, and other measures should be taken to cope
with higher flows.
The spacing between pairs of gratings should not be less than 1.7G, where G is the width
of the gratings (see Figure B4, Appendix 6A). The size of the required gratings should be
chosen so that the ratio of the width G over the depth of the channel y1, is within the
following limits:
,
1.5 ≤ 5.1
-
The lower limit corresponds to the minimum width of grating necessary to achieve the
performance specified.The upper limit corresponds to the widest grating that can be
installed in the channel.The required length H of each grating is given by:
≥,
The lower edge of each grating should be set as close as possible to the invert of the
channel in order to maximize flow interception, ie distance in Figure B5 should be
minimized. A design of in-line outlet with gratings set flat in the channel invert is not
included because the limit with maximum cross fails of 1:4 would allow the use of only
small gratings with inefficient flow capacity.
The recommended geometry for off-line outlets is shown in Figure B6. The number of
gratings may vary from one to three depending on the amount of flow approaching the
outlet.However, outlets formed by a single grating may have the disadvantage of being
easily blocked by debris, particularly when the outlets are widely spaced than 1.25G where
G is the width of the gratings.The size of the gratings is determined by:
,
≥ 4.5
-
Trapezoidal Channels
The in-line outlet geometries recommended for trapezoidal channels are shown in Figures
B7 and B9, Appendix 6A. The width of the gratings is determined by:
,
= 3.0
-
The off-line geometries recommended are shown in Figure B8 and B10, Appendix 6A.The
width of the gratings is determined by:
,
≥ 4.0
-
Terminal Outlets
The requirement that surface water channels should not have any sides steeper than 1:4
applies also to the geometry of terminal outlets.When not protected by a safety barrier,
surface water channels must therefore terminate with a smooth transition, without abrupt
changes in level or width.Examples of recommended terminal outlets are shown in dashed
lines in Figures B5 to B10, Appendix 6A.The terminal ramps should be built at a certain

Chapter 6
minimum distance from the grating furthest downstream.This reduces the probability of
blockage of the gratings by debris since some of the debris will tend to accumulate in the
area between the gratings and the terminal ramp.For in-line and off-line outlets in
triangular channels, this distance should equal the grating width.For in-line and off-line
outlets in trapezoidal channels, the recommended distances are given in terms of the
grating width, G, and are shown in Figures B7 to B10.
6.16.3 General Recommendations on Design of Outfall Structures

An outfall conveys water from one or more outlets in surface water channel to a suitable
discharge point. The design of an outfall may vary considerably depending on the general
topography and nature of the ground, the layout of the road scheme and weather the water
is discharged to a watercourse or below –ground pipe system. A chamber or gully pot
should be located below or immediately adjacent to each outlet to collect sediment carried
with the flow from the surface water channel.Standard circular gully pots have a limited
hydraulic capacity and it is recommended that they should not be used for flow rates
exceeding 5 l/s unless their suitability has been determined by test.The plan shape of the
chamber will be determined by the layout of the gratings forming the outlet.The invert of
the outgoing pipe from the chamber should be set a minimum of 300mm above the bottom
of the chamber to retain an adequate volume of sediment.
The invert level of the outgoing pipe should be chosen so that the water level in the
chamber does not raise high enough to prevent flow discharging freely from the surface
water channel into the outlet.For design, it is recommended that the water level in the
chamber should be at least 150mm below the underside of the gratings when the outlet is
receiving flow from the channel under surcharged condition.The height Z (in m), of the
water surface in the chamber above the invert of the outgoing pipe can be estimated from
the equation:
4
3= + 0.23 6
2 4
where D is the diameter of the pipe (in m) and Q is the flow rate (in m3/s) in the chamber
corresponding to surcharge conditions in the surface water channel.The gradient and
diameter of the outgoing pipe should be determined from standard flow tables or resistance
equation so that the pipe is just flowing full under surcharged conditions.
Provided the chamber below the outlet is designed to trap sediment, the outgoing pipe from
the chamber may be connected directly to a collector pipe by means of a 45o Y junction
without the need for a manhole at the junction.If weir outlet is used, the collecting channel
into which flow drops from the weir should be deep enough to allow the outlet to discharge
freely when the surface water channel is flowing under surcharged conditions. The design
flow depth, J (in m), can be estimated from the equation:
966
7 = 4.82( : )


Chapter 6
Where E is the top width of flow (in m) and Q is design rate of flow (in m3/s). The overall
depth of the channel is obtained by adding 0.15m to the value of J1.The top width of the
channel should not be less than 0.5m. It is recommended that the collecting channel below
a weir outlet should discharge into a chamber with a removable cover in order to sill the
flow and allow sediment to be collected.
6.17 References
1. AASHTO, Vol. VI-Highway Drainage Guidelines, “Hydraulic Analysis and Design
of Open Channels,” AASHTO Task Force on Hydrology and Hydraulics, 1982.
2. American Society of Civil Engineers, High Velocity Flow in Open Channels: A
Symposium, “Design of Channel Curves for Supercritical Flow,” Transactions, Vol.
116, 1951.
3. Arcement, G.J., Jr., and Schneider, V.R., “Guide for Selecting Manning’s Roughness
Coefficients for Natural Channels and Flood Plains,’ Report No. FHWA-TS-84-204,
Federal Highway Administration, 1984.
4. Barnes, Harry H. Jr., “Roughness Characteristics of Natural Channels,” U.S.
Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1849, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., 1975.
5. Behlke, C.E., “The Design of Supercritical Flow Channel Junctions,” Highway
Research Record No. 123, Transportation Research Board, 1966.
6. Blodgett, J.C., “Rock Riprap Design for Protection of Stream Channels Near
Highway Structures,” Vol. 1, Water Resources Investigations Report 864127, U.S.
Geological Survey, prepared in cooperation with Federal Highway Administration,
1986.
7. Blalock, M.E., and Sturm, T.W., “Minimum Specific Energy in Compound Open
Channel,” Journal of Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No. HY6, pp. 699-717,
June 1981.
8. Blodgett, J.C., and McConaughy, C.E., “Rock Riprap Design for Protection of
Stream Channels Near Highway Structures,” Vol. 2, Water Resources Investigations
Report 864127, U.S. Geological Survey, prepared in cooperation with Federal
Highway Administration, 1986.
9. Brice, J.C., and J.C. Blodgett, ‘Countermeasures for Hydraulic Problems at Bridges,
Vol. 1, Analysis and Assessment,” Federal Highway Administration /RD-75-162,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1975.
10. Brown, S.A., “Streambank Stabilization Measures for Stream Crossings--Executive
Summary,” FHWA/RD-84/099, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.,
1985.
11. Brown, S.A., “Design of Spur-Type Streambank Stabilization Structures,” Federal
Highway Administration /RD-84/101, Federal Highway Administration,
1
Design of Outfalls for Surface Water Channels, HA78/96.

Chapter 6
12. Brown, S.A., “Streambank Stabilization Measures for Highway Engineers,’ Federal
Highway Administration /RD-84/100, Federal Highway Administration,
13. Chow, V.T., Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, 1970.
14. Clopper, Paul E., “Hydraulic Stability of Articulated Concrete Block Revetment
Systems During Overtopping Flow,” FHWA-RD-89-199, FHWA, Washington, D.C.,
November 1989.
15. Davidian, Jacob, “Computation of Water Surface Profiles in Open Channels,”
Techniques of Water Resources Investigation, Book 3, Chapter A15, U.S. Geological
Survey, 1984.
16. Federal Highway Administration, “Highways in the River Environment,” Training
and Design Manual, 1990.
17. Federal Highway Administration, “Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for
Culverts and Channels,” Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14, U.S. DOT, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1983.
18. Federal Highway Administration, “Design of Roadside Channels with Flexible
Linings, “ Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 15, U. S. DOT, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1985.
19. Federal Highway Administration, “Use of Riprap for Bank Protection,” Hydraulic
Engineering Circular No. I-1, U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1967.
20. Federal Highway Administration, “Design Of Riprap Revetments,” Hydraulic
Engineering Circular FHWA 89-016 Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,
1989.
21. Federal Highway Administration, “Stream Stability,” Hydraulic Engineering Circular
No. 20, U.S. DOT, 1991.
22. Henderson, F.M., Open Channel Flow, Macmillan, 1966.
23. Lane, E.W., “A Study of the Shape of Channels Formed by Natural Stream Flowing
in Erodible Material,” M.R.D. Sediment Series No. 9, U.S. Army Corps of Engineer
Division, Missouri River, Corps of Engineers, Omaha, Nebraska, 1957.
24. Molinas, Albert, Users Manual for BRI-STARS, NCHRP Project HR 15-11, 1990
(Dram Report), National Cooperative Highway Research Program.
25. Molinas, Albert, BRI-STARS Expert System For Stream Classification, NCHRP
Project 15-11, 1990 (Dram Report).
26. Odgaard, A. Jacob, and Spoljaric, Anita, “Sediment Control by submerged Vanes,”
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 112, No. 12 December 1986.
27. Odgaard, Jacob A., and Mosconi, Carlos E., “Streambank Protection by Submerged
Vanes, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 113, No. 4, April 1987.
28. Richardson, E.V., D.B. Simons, and P.Y. Julien, “Highways in the River
Environment,” prepared for the Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
by the Department of Civil Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
Colorado, June 1990.

Chapter 6
29. Rouse, Hunter, ed., Engineering Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950.
30. Shearman, J.0., “WSPRO User’s Instructions,” FHWA IP-89-27, 1990.
31. Shen, H.W., Schumm, S.A. Nelson, J.D. Doehring, D.O. and M.M. Skinner,
“Methods for Assessment of Stream-Related Hazards to Highways and Bridges,”
FHWA/RD-80/160, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1981.
32. Sturm, T.W., “Simplified Design of Contractions in Supercritical Flow,” Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 11, No. 5, May 1985.
33. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “Accuracy of Computed Water Surface Profiles”,
The Hydrologic Engineering Center, Davis, California, December 1986.
34. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “HEC-2 Water Surface Profiles, User’s Manual,”
The Hydrologic Engineering Center, Davis, CA, 1982.
35. Vanoni, Vito A., ed., Sedimentation Engineering, ASCE Manual No. 54, ASCE, 345
East 47th St., New York, NY, 1977.
36. Drainage Manual, Drainage and Hydrology Section, Highway Design Office,
Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Downsview, Ontario, 1986-1993.

Chapter 6
APPENDIX 6A - TYPICAL CHANNEL DETAILS
Figure: 6A-1 Cross-sectional shape of triangular channel

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-2: Cross-sectional shape of trapezoidal channels

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-3: Relationship between surcharged and channel-full flows: Trapezoidal channels

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-4: Triangular channel In-line outlet

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-5: Trpezoidal Channel Off-line outlets

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-6: Trapezoidal channel with cross-falls of 1:4.5 in-line outlet

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-7: Trapezoidal channel with cross-falls of 1:4.5 - off-line outlet

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-8: Trapezoidal channel with cross-falls of 1:5 in-line outlet

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-9:Trapezoidal channel with cross-falls of 1:5 - off-line outlet

Chapter 6
URBAN DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

CURVE SECTION DIMENSIONS
# LINING n shape B Z D K Scrit
grass
U1 rip rap 0,030 triangular 0 1 0,45 0,9 0,0253

U2 rect 0,5 0 0,45 1,5 0,0396
U3 0,5 0 0,75 2,9 0,0514
U4 1 0 0,75 3,9 0,0252
U5 concrete 0,015 rect 0,5 0 0,75 5,8 0,0129

U6 0,015 1 0 0,75 7,7 0,0063
URBAN Ditch Capacity
3 U1
2,5
U2
2
Discharge, m3/s
U3
1,5
U4
1
CHART 6-1
U5
0,5
U6
0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,1 0,11 0,12
Slope, m/m
Chapter 6
DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

curve RURAL
# LINING n Shape B Z D K Scrit
R1 rip rap 0,030 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,75 6,0 0,0172
R2 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 9,8 0,0162
R3 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 13,7 0,0147
R4 0,030 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 16,8 0,0146
R5 0,030 0,50 2,0 0,90 20,9 0,0137
R6 0,030 1,00 1,5 0,90 24,4 0,0136
R7 0,030 1,00 2,0 0,90 28,5 0,0131
C1 concrete 0,015 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 33,7 0,0036
C2 0,015 0,50 2,0 0,90 41,7 0,0034
C3 0,015 1,00 1,5 0,90 48,8 0,0034
C4 0,015 1,00 2,0 0,90 56,9 0,0033
RURAL Ditch Capacity
20,0 R1
18,0 R2
16,0 R3
14,0 R4
Discharge, m3/s
12,0 R5
10,0 R6
CHART 6-2
8,0 R7
6,0 C1
4,0 C2
2,0 C3
0,0 C4
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,1 0,11 0,12
Slope, m/m

Chapter 6
DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

CURVE RURAL
G1 grass 0,045 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,90 6,5 0,0364
G2 0,045 0,00 2 0,90 9,1 0,0331
G3 0,045 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 11,2 0,0328
G4 0,045 0,50 2 0,90 13,9 0,0308
G5 0,045 1,00 1,5 0,90 16,3 0,0307
G6 0,045 1,00 2 0,90 19,0 0,0294
R2 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 9,8 0,0162
R3 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 13,7 0,0147
R4 0,030 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 16,8 0,0146
R5 0,030 0,50 2,0 0,90 20,9 0,0137
RURAL Ditch Capacity NOTE : DITCH CAPACITY ONLY

6,0
APPLICABLE OVER RANGE
G1 PLOTTED ON CHART. DITHCH
CAPACITIES SHOWN ARE
G2 LIMITED BY BOTH MINIMUM AND
MAXIMUM VELOCITIES
G3
G5
4,0
Discharge, m3/s
G6
R1
R2
2,0 R3
CHART 6-3
R4
R5
G4
0,0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
Slope, m/m

Chapter 6
DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

CURVE RURAL
G1 grass 0,045 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,90 6,5 0,0364
G2 0,045 0,00 2 0,90 9,1 0,0331
G3 0,045 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 11,2 0,0328
G4 0,045 0,50 2 0,90 13,9 0,0308
G5 0,045 1,00 1,5 0,90 16,3 0,0307
G6 0,045 1,00 2 0,90 19,0 0,0294
R2 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 9,8 0,0162
R3 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 13,7 0,0147
R4 0,030 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 16,8 0,0146
R5 0,030 0,50 2,0 0,90 20,9 0,0137
RURAL Ditch Capacity NOTE : DITCH CAPACITY ONLY

6,0
APPLICABLE OVER RANGE
G1 PLOTTED ON CHART. DITHCH
CAPACITIES SHOWN ARE
G2 LIMITED BY BOTH MINIMUM AND
MAXIMUM VELOCITIES
G3
G5
4,0
Discharge, m3/s
G6
R1
R2
2,0 R3
R4
CHART 6-4
R5
G4
0,0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
Slope, m/m

Chapter 6
Figure 6A-10: Typical Gutter and Ditch Details

Chapter 15
Drainage Design Manual – 2013 Computer Programs
APPENDIX 6B -WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 6-1
This example describes the process to determine the flow rate, the velocity of a flow and
the state of flow in a stream.
Theexamplecommencesafterthestreamdata(suchascrosssection,terrain,conditionof channel
and stream profile to determine site bed slope) has been gathered (refer Chapter
4).Thetaskforthisexampleis,giventhestreamdataandheightofflow(seediagrambelow),
determinethevelocityofflowinthechannel,theflowrateandstateofflow(subcritical/ critical /
supercritical flow).
Stream Data
Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
Ht of channel bed is 110.60 m
Channel is regular and considered a little rough with a lot of trees and weeds along
the banks.
Solution
WeneedtodeterminethevelocityofflowusingManning’sformulafirst,thentheflowrate using
the fundamental equation and finally, determine Froude’s number to describe the state of
flow.
Manning’s equation is:
;.<<= > ;.:
=
'
Where R is the hydraulic radius, determines as cross sectional area of flow (A) divided by
the wetted perimeter (P).Also, S is the slope of the energy line which we don’t have,
therefore we can use the bed slope (So) to approximate S.
Step 1. Calculate the cross sectional area of the flow.
= 1.2 ∗ 1.2 + 1.2 ∗ 2.5 = 4.44 @
Step 2. Calculate the wetted perimeter.
( = A(1.2 ∗ 1.2 + 1.2 ∗ 1.2)

∗ 2 + 2.5 = 5.89 @
Step 3. Calculate the hydraulic radius.
4.44
= = = 0.75 @
( 5.89

Chapter 15
Computer Programs Drainage Design Manual – 2013
Step 4. Now determine an appropriate Manning’s roughness coefficient.

Using Table 6.1, Manning’s n Values for Natural Channel for this example is assumed
trees and weeds with ” n”values ranging between 0.06 and 0.08.Now, with the bed being a
little rough, a value n = 0.07 (in the middle of range) is considered appropriate.
Step 5. All variables have now been determined, therefore calculate velocity.
0.75;.<<= ∗ 0.008;.:
=
0.07
= 1.06 @/E
Step 6.UsingfundamentalequationQ=V.A,wecannowdeterminetheflowrateinthe channel.
= 1.06 ∗ 4.44 = 4.71 @ /E
Step 7. To determine the ‘state of flow’, we calculate Froude’s number.
I
FG = H
J
We have determined that Q = 4.71m3/s, A = 4.44m2 and g is acceleration due to gravity

(taken as 9.81m/s2), therefore we need to calculate B, the width of flow across the surface.
I = 1.2 + 2.5 + 1.2 = 4.9 @
Therefore:
4.9
FG = 4.71 H
9.81 ∗ 4.44
FG = 0.36
Froude’s number is below 1.0, therefore the flow is subcritical.
End of Example
Example 6-2
Thisexampledescribestheprocesstodeterminethedepthandvelocityofflowbasedona known
discharge / flow rate in a stream, based on discussion in Section 8.4.
Theexamplecommencesafterthestreamdata(suchascrosssection,terrain,conditionof channel
and stream profile to determine site bed slope) has been gathered (refer Chapter 4) and the
flow rate (as determine using Rational Method) has been determined (refer Chapter 5). The
task for this example is, given the stream data and flow rate (see diagram below),
determine the depth and velocity of flow in the channel.
Stream Data
• Discharge/flow rate = 17.86 m3/s
• Bed slope about the site is 1.2%
• Ht of channel bed is 65.10 m
• Max depth of flow is 2.0 m
• Manning’s n = 0.06.

Chapter 15
Solution
To solve for d, we need to use Manning’s formula and develop a Stage-Discharge curve.
;.<<= ∗ ;.:
=
'
AStage-Discharge curve plots discharge against depth of flow.Therefore several iterations
using Manning’s formula are required for several depths of flow.
Step 1. Using the maximum channel depth of 2.0m, calculate stream velocity and flow rate.
Calculate the cross sectional area of the flow, wetted perimeter and hydraulic radius:
A = 12.00 m2, P = 9.66 m therefore R = 1.24 m
Now,
1.24;.<<= ∗ 0.012;.:
= = 2.11 @/E
0.06
Using Q/VA,Q=25.33 m3/s
Thisflowisgreaterthantheknowndischargethereforeweknowthatthechannelcaneasily carry
the flow.
Step 2. Now,usingthesamemethod,re-calculatestreamvelocityandflowrateforseveral lesser
depths (suggest using even increments).
Step 3. Now draw the Stage-Discharge curve for this site/channel (refer next page).
Step 4. From the curve, we can now read of the flow depth for our design flow of
17.86 m3/s.
Q = 17.86 m3/s, therefore d = 1.62 m
Step 5. Now we can use the depth to calculate flow area, then Q=V.A to determine the
average flow velocity.
A = 1.62 2 + 1.62 x 4 = 9.10 m2
17.86 m 3/s= V x 9.10 m2
V = 1.96 m/s

Chapter 15
End of Exercise
Example 6- 3
This example describes the process to determine the flow rate, the average velocity of a
flow in a compound stream.
The example commences after the stream data (such as cross section, terrain, Manning’s n
and stream profile to determine site bed slope) has been gathered (refer Chapter 4).
Thetaskforthisexampleis,giventhestreamdataandheightofflow(seediagrambelow),
determine the average velocity of flow in the channel and the flow rate.
Stream Data
• Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
Solution
To solve for Q, we need to use Manning’s formula for each sub section of stream:
;.<<= ∗ ;.:
=
'

Chapter 15
After calculating V for each sub-section, use KLKMN = ( ∗ ) + (O ∗ O ) + (P ∗
P )to determine total flow rate.
Step 1. For sub-section A, calculate VA using Manning’s equation.
Calculatethecrosssectionalareaoftheflow,wettedperimeterandhydraulicradiusforsub-section
A are:
1.2
= Q R + 1.2 ∗ 4.0 = 5.52 @
2
( = A(1.2 + 1.2 ) + 2.5 = 5.70 @

It is important to remember that that water - water boundary between sub-sections A & B
does not contribute any length to the wetted perimeter.
5.52
= = = 0.968 @
( 5.70
Now,
0.97;.<<= ∗ 0.008;.:
= = 1.25@/E
0.07
S
Using

, = 6.90@ /E
Step 2. For sub-section B, calculate VB using Manning’s equation.
O = 7.39@
(O = 4.83@
O = 1.53@
Now,
1.531;.<<= ∗ 0.008;.:
O = = 3.40@/E
0.035
S
Using

, O = 25.09@ /E
Step 3. For sub-section C, calculate V C using Manning’s equation.
P = 3.50@
(P = 4.41@
P = 0.79@
Now,
0.793;.<<= ∗ 0.008;.:
P = = 1.28@/E
0.06
S
, P = 4.47@ /E

Using

Chapter 15

Chapter 15
Step 4. Now we can calculate:

UVUWX = 6.90 + 25.09 + 4.47 = 36.46@ /E
And
UVUWX = 5.52 + 7.39 + 3.50 = 16.41@
Therefore
36.46
WY = = 2.22@/E
16.41
End of Exercise
Example 6.4
Given: A roadside drainage channel is trapezoidal with a bottom width of 1.2 m and 1V:3H
side slopes. The bed slope is 0.005 m/m and the design flow rate is 0.6 m3/s.
Find: Calculate the required diameter (D50) of a gravel riprap that is to be used as a
permanent channel lining, and the design depth of flow.
Solution: The solution follows the procedure outlined in HEC-15, which is based on
the tractive force method.
(1) Choose a rounded gravel with D50 = 25 mm
Then τp = 19 Pa (Table 6-3)
(2) Estimate n = 0.033 from Table 6-4 for depth y = 0.15 – 0.6 m
1.486' ^1.486(0.033)(0.6)_
(3) Calculate y from Manning’s equation (Figure 6-4)
Z \/ / ] = = 0.256
([ )( ) ^(1.2\/ )(0.005/ )_
Then from Figure 6-4 with Z = 3: y/b = 0.29 and y = 0.35 m
(4) Calculate maximum bed shear stress, τd
τd = 9800 yS = 9800 x 0.35 x 0.005 = 17 Pa
Now because τd<τp, accept D50 of approximately 25 mm.Otherwise
repeat with another riprap diameter.
(5) Side slopes will be stable because side slope is not steeper than
1V:3H.If side slopes are steeper than 1V:3H or if channel slope is
steep, consult HEC-15 for additional computations.

Chapter 15
Example 6-5
Given: A median ditch is lined with a good stand of native grasses (approximately 0.203m
in height). The ditch is trapezoidal with a bottom width of 1.2m and side
slopes of 1V:4H. The ditch slope is 0.010m/m.
Find: Compute the maximum discharge for which this lining will be stable and the
corresponding flow depth.
Solution: From Table 6-2, the native grass has a retardance class of C and from Table
6-3, the permissible shear stress is
τp = 48 Pa
Then the allowable depth can be determined by assuming τp = τd:
`a 48
-= = = 0.49@
9800 9800 ∗ 0.01
Now determine the flow area A and hydraulic radius R:
= -([ + b-) = 0.49c1.2 + (4 ∗ 0.49)d = 1.55@
( = [ + 2-(1 + b )/ = 1.2 + (2 ∗ 0.49)(1 + 15)/ = 5.24@
1.55
= = = 0.30@
( 5.24
Finally determine the Manning’s n value from Photo 21 and solve for Q from
Manning’s equation:
From Photo 21, n = 0.080 and
1
= e f / /
'
1
=e f (1.55)(0.30)/ (0.01)/ = 0.86@ /E
0.080
(This method is called the maximum discharge method and is useful for determining
the stable channel capacity for a variety of different linings for purposes of
comparison).
Example 6-6
Given: A rectangular channel on a slope of 0.001 with a width of 1.8m expands to a width
of 3 m in a straight walled transition, Z = 0. The design discharge is 8.5 m3/s
and Manning’s n = 0.02.
Find: Calculate the depth of flow in the upstream 1.8m wide channel if normal depth is the
downstream control.
Solution: (1)Compute the downstream normal depth y2:
1.486' 1.486 ∗ 0.02 ∗ 8.5
Z ] = Z ] = 0.427
[\/ / 3.0\/ ∗ 0.001/
Then from Figure 6-4 with z = 0:y2/b = 0.68 and y2 = 2.04 m and for
a rectangular channel, yc = ((Q/b)2/g)1/2=0.9 m SUBCRITICAL

Chapter 15
(2) The specific energy downstream is:

(- + ) 8.5
9 = = 2.04 + = 2.14@
c2 d (2 ∗ 9.81)(3 ∗ 2.04)
(3) Choose a straight-walled transition with a divergence angle of 12.5
degrees which has an expansion loss coefficient of 0.5 (HEC-
14).The length of the transition would be:
.;g.\

&=
= 2.71@
tan 12.5°
(4) Check if subcritical flow is possible by assuming critical depth in
upstream channel.
c-l + l d
9l = M'm 9 = 9 + b − b + ℎ
2J
Where: z2-z1 = 0.001(2.71) = 0.003 ≈ 0
y1c = ((8.5/1.8)2/9.81)1/3 = 1.31 m
V1c = Q/A1c = 8.5/(1.8 x 1.31) = 3.6 m/s
V2 = Q/A2 = 8.5/(2.04 x 3) = 1.39 m/s
HL = 0.5 (3.62 – 1.392)/(2x9.81) = 0.281 m
then E1c = 1.31 + 3.62/(2x981) = 1.97 m
and E1 = 2.14 + 0 + 0.281 = 2.42 m
Now since E1> E1c, a subcritical solution exists. If this were not the
case, the width of 1.8 m would have to be increased.
(5) Solve the energy equation, Eq. 6.10, by trial:
b + - +
= b + 9 + ℎ
c2J d
(1 − 0.5)(8.5)
- +
(2 ∗ 9.81) ∗ (1.8 >- )

2.14 − 0.5(8.5)
=
(2 ∗ 9.81) ∗ (3 ∗ 2.04)
where: ................................................................................. z1-z2 = 0
.................................................... h1 = 0.5 (Q2/(2gA12) – Q2/(2gA22))
....................................................................................... E2 = 2.14 m
............................................................................. A2 = 3.0 x 2.04 m2
with the result y1 = 1.94 m and V1 = 3.07 m/s
(6) Calculate the water surface profile using the Standard Step Method
if boundary resistance losses are of concern.

Chapter 15
Example 6.7
Given: A rectangular transition contracts from a width of 3.0 m to a width of 1.5 m. The
approach flow rate is 8.5 m3/s with a depth of 0.3 m.
Find: Calculate the depth in the contracted section and the angle and length of the
contraction so that the transmission of standing waves downstream is
minimized.
Solution: (1) ............... Calculate the approach Froude number for a rectangular channel.
\.:
( .;∗;. )
F= = = 5.5 nopqrsrtutsvw
(Jm)/ (9.8 ∗ 0.3)/
(2) Determine the contraction ratio:

[ 1.5
x= = = 0.5
[ 3.0
(3) Use Figure 6-12

-
y = 5°M'm = 2.1 Lx - = 0.62@
-
F - g /
= x g e f = 0.66 Lx F = 3.6
F -
z gz

&=
= 8.57@
tan 5°
This design satisfies the criterion F3>2 and also is just to the left of curve, A which means
choking is not possible (for the complete equations see HEC-14 and Storm. 1985).

Drainage Design Manual Final Nov13 - Chapter 6

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Chapter 6

Drainage Design Manual – 2013 Hydraulic Design of Open Channels

6 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-1

6.2 Hydraulic Considerations

6.3 Safety Consideration

Figure 6-1: Errant Vehicles

6.4 Maintenance Consideration

Page 6-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 6-2: Damaged side ditch along Assossa Kumruk Road

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-3

6.6 Coordination with Other Agencies

6.7 Environmental Considerations

6.8 Alignment and Grade

Figure 6-3: Erosion at a channel bends (Wollega Region)

Changes in alignment should be made as gradually as possible to introduce the least

Page 6-4 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 6-4: Typical grass-lined channel

Figure 6-5: Points of discharge

6.9 Channel Section

6.9.1 Natural Channels

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-5

6.9.2 Triangular V-Ditch

Figure 6-6: Cross-sectional shape of triangular channel

Figure 6-7: A non-traversable drainage V-ditch such as this is a safety hazard

The shape of a channel section is generally determined by considering the intended

6.9.3 Trapezoidal Ditch

Page 6-6 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 6-8: Triangular drain at Abay Valley

Figure 6-9: Cross-sectional shape of trapezoidal channels

6.9.4 Rectangular Ditch

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-7

Figure 6-10: Typical rectangular ditch north of Addis Ababa

6.10 Channel Design

Page 6-8 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 6-11: Roadside ditch collecting lateral flows

6.10.1 Erosion Control

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-9

erosion at the end of the turnout.

Figure 6-13: Photo of a Turnout (in Wollega)

6.10.3 Relief Culverts

6.10.4 Catch Pit Inlets

Figure 6-14: Typical photo of catch pit inlet structure (Gojam)

Page 6-10 Ethiopian Roads Authority

6.10.5 Town Section Drainage Channels

Figure 6-15: Typical town section drainage channels

6.10.6 Access Type Culverts at a Junction

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-11

Figure 6-16: Typical layout of junction drain ditch design

Figure 6-17: Sample photos of access slabs

6.10.7 Design Considerations

Page 6-12 Ethiopian Roads Authority

6.11 Design Criteria of Channels

6.11.1 Stream Channels

Figure 6-18: Sample photo of stream channel

6.11.2 Roadside Channels

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-13

Page 6-14 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Figure 6-19: Typical Road Side Ditch Locations

6.12 Open Channel Flow

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 6-15

6.12.1 Flow Classification

Page 6-16 Ethiopian Roads Authority

The selection of Manning’s ‘n’ is generally based on observation; however, considerable