TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. HVAC SYSTEMS................................................................................. 3
1.1 Introduction to HVAC System................................................. 3
1.2 Introduction to heating system................................................ 4
1.3 Introduction to ventilation system..............................................8
1.4 Introduction to human comfort...................................................9

2. BAISIC REFRIGERATION CYCLE

2.1 Components of basic refrigeration......................... 1
2.2 Types of components..................................... 3
2.3 Types of Refrigerant...................................................... 10

3. AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENTS.............................................12

3.1 General Schematic of Air-Conditioning.............................................12
3.2 Window A/C
3.3 Split A/C
3.4 Packaged roof A/C
3.5 VRF A/C
3.6 Central A/C
3.7 Air-Conditioning Equipment

4. CALCULATION OF HEAT LOADS............................................................................1

2.1 Principles of Heat Transfer............................................................... 1
2.2 Heat quantity of measuring..................................... 3
2.3 Classification of cooling loads...................................................... 10
2.4 Calculation of Total Heat.......................................................................

5. DUCTING SYSTEM...................................................................................................42
5.1 Components of duct..................................................................................42
5.2 Concept of air duct system
5.3 Design of ducting system
6. CONCLUSION........................................................................................................43

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................44
 1. HVAC SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction of HVAC SYSTEMS

This chapter discusses the main processes of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
(HVAC) and their uses. HVAC systems include a range from the simplest hand-stoked
stove used for comfort heating to the extremely reliable total air-conditioning systems found
in submarines and space shuttles. The term “air conditioning” has gradually changed its
meaning from just cooling to the total control of temperature, moisture in the air (humidity),
supply of outside air for ventilation, filtration of airborne particles, and air movement in the
occupied space. Cooling equipment varies from the small domestic unit to refrigeration
machines that are 10,000 times the size, which are used in industrial processes. There are
seven main processes required to achieve full air conditioning: heating, cooling,
humidifying, dehumidifying, cleaning, ventilating, and air movement. The requirements and
importance of these seven processes vary with the climate. Modern air conditioning is
critical to almost every facet of advancing human activity. Although there have been great
advances in HVAC, there are several areas where active research

1.2 Introduction of Heating system

Heating is the technology of indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to
provide human comfort and acceptable indoor air quality.

HVAC system design is a sub discipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles
of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer. "Refrigeration" is sometimes added
to the field's abbreviation, as HVAC&R or HVACR or "ventilation" is dropped, as
in HACR (as in the designation of HACR-rated circuit breakers).

HVAC is an important part of residential structures such as single family homes, apartment
buildings, hotels and senior living facilities, medium to large industrial and office buildings
such as skyscrapers and hospitals, vehicles such as cars, trains, airplanes, ships and
submarines, and in marine environments, where safe and healthy building conditions are
regulated with respect to temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.
 1.3 Introduction of ventilation system

Ventilation is the process of changing or replacing air in any space to control temperature or
remove any combination of moisture, odors,smoke,heat,dust, airborne bacteria, or carbon
dioxide, and to replenish oxygen.

Ventilation includes both the exchange of air with the outside as well as circulation of air
within the building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor
air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided
into mechanical/forced and natural type 

1.4 Introduction of Human comfort

The goal of the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system is to create and
maintain a comfortable environment within a building. Depending on geographic location
and building construction, various types of interior climate control systems help ensure that
interior spaces are maintained at comfortable levels year-round. With today’s energy
conservation concerns, buildings are constructed to be much tighter, reducing the level of
natural exchange between indoor and outdoor air.

As a result, more and more buildings rely on mechanical conditioning and distribution
systems for managing air.

A properly operating HVAC system finds the often delicate balance between optimizing
occupant comfort while controlling operating costs. Comfort is an important issue for
occupant satisfaction, which can directly affect concentration and productivity. At the same
time, controlling these comfort and health parameters directly affects HVAC system
operating costs in terms of energy, maintenance and equipment life. Below will be analyzed
of these parameters:
 2. BAISIC REFRIGERATION CYCLE

2.1 Components of basic refrigeration

The refrigeration system makes a cold room work. It is simply a process of transporting heat
from one place to another. The vapour-compression system is the most commonly used
method of refrigeration. It is frequently used in large cold rooms like industrial chillers.
The refrigeration cycle contains four major components:
the compressor, condenser, expansion device, and evaporator.
The condenser's job is to cool the refrigerant so that it turns from a gas into a liquid, or
condenses
The main components of a refrigeration system are the condenser, the compressor,
the evaporator and the expansion valve.
Condenser
Condensation changes gas to a liquid form. Its main purpose is to liquefy the refrigerant gas
sucked by the compressor from the evaporator. As condensation begins, the heat will flow
from the condenser into the air, only if the condensation temperature is higher than that of
the atmosphere. The high-pressure vapour in the condenser will be cooled to become a
liquid refrigerant again, this time with a little heat. The liquid refrigerant will then flow from
the condenser to a liquid line.

Compressor
The compressor’s use is to pull the low-temperature and low-pressure vapour from the
evaporator, through a suction line.
Once the vapour is drawn, it will be compressed. This will cause the vapour’s temperature
to rise. Its main function is to transform a low-temperature vapour in to a high-temperature
vapour, to increase pressure. Vapour is released from the compressor into a discharge line.

Evaporator
An evaporator is used to turn any liquid material into gas. In this process, heat is absorbed.
The evaporator transfers heat from the refrigerated space into a heat pump through a liquid
refrigerant, which boils in the evaporator at a low-pressure. In achieving heat transfer, the
liquid refrigerant should be lower than the goods being cooled. After the transfer, liquid
refrigerant is drawn by the compressor from the evaporator through a suction line. Liquid
refrigerant will be in vapour form upon leaving the evaporator coil.

Expansion Valve
Commonly placed before the evaporator and at the end of the liquid line, the expansion
valve is reached by the liquid refrigerant after it has been condensed. Reducing the pressure
of the refrigerant, its temperature will decrease to a level below its atmosphere. This liquid
will then be pumped into the evaporator.
2.2 Types of components

 COMPRESSOR
The main and important types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below:

Positive displacement
A positive displacement compressor is the system which compresses the air by the
displacement of a mechanical linkage reducing the volume (since the reduction in volume
due to a piston in thermodynamics is considered as positive displacement of the piston)
Put another way, a positive displacement compressor is one which operates by drawing in a
discrete volume of gas from its inlet then forcing that gas to exit via the compressor's outlet.
The increase in the pressure of the gas is due, at least in part, to the compressor pumping it
at a mass flow rate which cannot pass through the outlet at the lower pressure and density of
the inlet.

Reciprocating compressors

Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either

stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or
internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp)
are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger
reciprocating compressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are commonly found in large
industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to
very high pressure (>18000 psi or 180 MPa). In certain applications, such as air
compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient
compressors available, and are typically larger, and more costly than comparable rotary
units.Another type of reciprocating compressor, usually employed in automotive cabin air
conditioning systems is the swash plate or wobble plate compressor, which uses pistons
moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft (see axial piston pump).
Ionic liquid piston compressor
An ionic liquid piston compressor, ionic compressor or ionic liquid piston pump is
a hydrogen compressor based on an ionic liquid piston instead of a metal piston as in a
piston-metal diaphragm compressor

Rotary screw compressors

Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical

screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually used for continuous operation
in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their
application can be from 3 horsepower (2.2 kW) to over 1,200 horsepower (890 kW) and
from low pressure to moderately high pressure (>1,200 psi or 8.3 MPa).
The classifications of rotary screw compressors vary based on stages, cooling methods, and
drive types among others.Rotary screw compressors are commercially produced in Oil
Flooded, Water Flooded and Dry type. The efficiency of rotary compressors depends on the
air drier, and the selection of air drier is always 1.5 times volumetric delivery of the
compressor.
Rotary vane compressors
Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in radial slots
in the rotor. The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing that is either circular or a more
complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades slide in and out of the slots keeping contact with
the outer wall of the housing. Thus, a series of increasing and decreasing volumes is created
by the rotating blades. Rotary Vane compressors are, with piston compressors one of the
oldest of compressor technologies.
With suitable port connections, the devices may be either a compressor or a vacuum pump.
They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven
by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Dry vane machines are used at relatively
low pressures (e.g., 2 bar or 200 kPa or 29 psi) for bulk material movement while oil-
injected machines have the necessary volumetric efficiency to achieve pressures up to about
13 bar (1,300 kPa; 190 psi) in a single stage. A rotary vane compressor is well suited to
electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in operation than the equivalent piston
compressor.

Rolling piston

The Rolling piston in a rolling piston style compressor plays the part of a partition between
the vane and the rotor. Rolling piston forces gas against a stationary vane.
2 of these compressors can be mounted on the same shaft to increase capacity and reduce
vibration and noise. A design without a spring is known as a swing compressor.
In refrigeration and air conditioning, this type of compressor is also known as a rotary
compressor, with rotary screw compressors being also known simply as screw compressors

Scroll compressors

A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump,

Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating,
thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls.
Due to minimum clearance volume between the fixed scroll and the orbiting scroll, these
compressors have a very high volumetric efficiency.
These compressors are extensively used in air conditioning and refrigeration because they
are lighter, smaller and have fewer moving parts than reciprocating compressors and they
are also more reliable. They are more expensive though, so peltier coolers or rotary and
reciprocating compressors may be used in applications where cost is the most important or
one of the most important factors to consider when designing a refrigeration or air
conditioining system.
.
Diaphragm compressors
A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the
conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the movement of
a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of the
membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the
compressor box come in contact with the gas being compressed.
The degree of flexing and the material constituting the diaphragm affects the maintenance
life of the equipment. Generally stiff metal diaphragms may only displace a few cubic
centimeters of volume because the metal can not endure large degrees of flexing without
cracking, but the stiffness of a metal diaphragm allows it to pump at high pressures. Rubber
or silicone diaphragms are capable of enduring deep pumping strokes of very high flexion,
but their low strength limits their use to low-pressure applications, and they need to be
replaced as plastic embrittlement occurs.
Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) as well
as in a number of other applications.

Dynamic
Dynamic compressors depend upon the inertia and momentum of a fluid.
Air bubble compressor
Also known as a trompe. A mixture of air and water generated through turbulence is
allowed to fall into a subterranean chamber where the air separates from the water. The
weight of falling water compresses the air in the top of the chamber. A submerged outlet
from the chamber allows water to flow to the surface at a lower height than the intake. An
outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed air to the surface. A facility on
this principle was built on the Montreal River at Ragged Shutes near Cobalt, Ontario in
1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines
Centrifugal compressors

A single stage centrifugal compressor

Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the

gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct)
section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy.
They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil
refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their
application can be from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With
multiple staging, they can achieve high output pressures greater than 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa).
This type of compressor, along with screw compressors, are extensively used in large
refrigeration and air conditioning systems. Magnetically levitated and air bearing centrifugal
compressors exist.

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a
radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to
turn diagonal flow to an axial rather than radial direction. Comparative to the conventional
centrifugal compressor (of the same stage pressure ratio), the value of the speed of the
mixed flow compressor is 1.5 times larger.

Axial compressors

Axial compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to

progressively compress a fluid. They are used where high flow rates or a compact design are
required.
The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary. The
rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils,
also known as stators or vanes, decelerate and redirect the flow direction of the fluid,
preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage. [1] Axial compressors are almost always
multi-staged, with the cross-sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the
compressor to maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1
design pressure ratio a compressor will not function unless fitted with features such as
stationary vanes with variable angles (known as variable inlet guide vanes and variable
stators), the ability to allow some air to escape part-way along the compressor (known as
interstage bleed) and being split into more than one rotating assembly
Hermetically sealed, open, or semi-hermetic

Compressors used in refrigeration systems are often described as being either hermetic,
open, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the compressor and motor drive are situated in
relation to the gas or vapor being compressed. The industry name for a hermetic
is hermetically sealed compressor, while a semi-hermetic is commonly called a semi-
hermetic compressor.
In hermetic and most semi-hermetic compressors, the compressor and motor driving the
compressor are integrated, and operate within the pressurized gas envelope of the system.
The motor is designed to operate in, and be cooled by, the refrigerant gas being compressed.
The difference between the hermetic and semi-hermetic, is that the hermetic uses a one-
piece welded steel casing that cannot be opened for repair; if the hermetic fails it is simply
replaced with an entire new unit. A semi-hermetic uses a large cast metal shell with
gasketed covers with screws that can be opened to replace motor and compressor
components.
The primary advantage of a hermetic and semi-hermetic is that there is no route for the gas
to leak out of the system. Open compressors rely on shaft seals to retain the internal
pressure, and these seals require a lubricant such as oil to retain their sealing properties.
An open pressurized system such as an automobile air conditioner can be more susceptible
to leak its operating gases. Open systems rely on lubricant in the system to splash on pump
components and seals. If it is not operated frequently enough, the lubricant on the seals
slowly evaporates, and then the seals begin to leak until the system is no longer functional
and must be recharged. By comparison, a hermetic or semi-hermetic system can sit unused
for years, and can usually be started up again at any time without requiring maintenance or
experiencing any loss of system pressure.

 CONDENSER
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used
to condense a gaseous substance into a liquid state through cooling. In so doing, the latent
heat is released by the substance and transferred to the surrounding environment.
Condensers are used for efficient heat rejection in many industrial systems. Condensers can
be made according to numerous designs, and come in many sizes ranging from rather small
(hand-held) to very large (industrial-scale units used in plant processes). For example,
a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the
outside air.
Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes such as distillation,
steam power plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling water or surrounding
air as the coolant is common in many condensers
A condenser is designed to transfer heat from a working fluid (e.g. water in a steam power
plant) to a secondary fluid or the surrounding air. The condenser relies on the efficient heat
transfer that occurs during phase changes, in this case during the condensation of a vapor
into a liquid. The vapor typically enters the condenser at a temperature above that of the
secondary fluid. As the vapor cools, it reaches the saturation temperature, condenses into
liquid and releases large quantities of latent heat. As this process occurs along the
condenser, the quantity of vapor decreases and the quantity of liquid increases; at the outlet
of the condenser, only liquid remains. Some condenser designs contain an additional length
to subcool this condensed liquid below the saturation temperature.
Countless variations exist in condenser design, with design variables including the working
fluid, the secondary fluid, the geometry and the material. Common secondary fluids include
water, air, refrigerants, or phase-change materials.
Condensers have two significant design advantages over other cooling technologies:

 Heat transfer by latent heat is much more efficient than heat transfer by sensible
heat only
 The temperature of the working fluid stays relatively constant during condensation,
which maximizes the temperature difference between the working and secondary fluid.
Other Types of Condensers
There are three other condensers used in HVAC systems:

 Water-cooled
 Air-cooled
 Evaporative
Applications:

 Air cooled – If the condenser is located on the outside of the unit, the air cooled
condenser can provide the easiest arrangement. These types of condensers eject heat to
the outdoors and are simple to install.

 Most common uses for this condenser are domestic refrigerators, upright freezers and in
residential packaged air conditioning units. A great feature of the air cooled condenser is
they are very easy to clean. Since dirt can cause serious issues with the condensers
performance, it is highly recommended that these be kept clear of dirt.

 Water cooled – Although a little pricier to install, these condensers are the more
efficient type. Commonly used for swimming pools and condensers piped for city water
flow, these condensers require regular service and maintenance.
They also require a cooling tower to conserve water. To prevent corrosion and the forming
of algae, water cooled condensers require a constant supply of makeup water along with
water treatment.
Depending on the application you can choose from tube in tube, shell and coil or shell and
tube condensers. All are essentially made to produce the same outcome, but each in a
different way.

  EVAPORATER

While these remain the least popular choice, they are used when either water supply is
inadequate to operate water cooled condenser or condensation temperature is lower that can
achieved by air cooled condenser. Evaporative condensers can be used inside or outside of a
building and under typical conditions, operate at a low condensing temperature.

Typically these are used in large commercial air-conditioning units. Although effective, they
are not necessarily the most efficient.

 EXPANSION VALVE

Expansion valves are devices used to control the refrigerant flow in a refrigeration system.
They help to facilitate the change of higher pressure of liquid refrigerant in the condensing
unit to lower pressure gas refrigerant in the evaporator.

The term "low side" is used to indicate the part of the system that operates under low
pressure, in this case the evaporator. The "high side" is used to indicate the part of the
system that operates under high pressure, in this case the condenser.

Types of Expansion Valves

There are basically four types of valves that are in used. These valves are also refer to as
metering devices.
  Automatic Exp. Valves
 Thermostatic Exp. Valves
 Capillary Tubes
 Float Valves

Automatic Expansion Valve regulates the flow of refrigerant from the liquid line to the
evaporator by using a pressure-actuated diaphragm. It maintains a constant pressure in the
evaporator.

The setback is that it is not efficient if the load fluctuates hence this type is not suitable for
use in air conditioning as the load fluctuates a lot during its operation.

Thermostatic Expansion Valve uses a valve mechanism to control the flow of liquid

refrigerant into the evaporator coil. The flow is controlled by the pressure in the evaporator.

This type of metering device is able to operate well when the load fluctuates and hence is
suitable for use in air conditioning system. When the evaporator warms, the valve provides
a higher flow rate amd when it cools, it reduces the flow rate.

It is also commonly refer to as TXV, TEV or TX valve. There is a sensing bulb which
detects the temperature of the coil and is usually located at a higher temperature within the
evaporator.

The bulb must be clamped firmly to the coil to ensure proper sensing. When the temperature
of the evaporator increases due to the demand for cooling, the pressure in the bulb will also
increase hence pushing the spring to open the valve.
Similarly, when the temperature of the evaporator reduces due to a lack of demand for
cooling, the pressure in the bulb will drop hence causing the spring to close the valve.

Capillary Tube is a tube with small internal diameter and could be coiled for part of its
length. It is installed to the suction line. A filter-drier is sometimes fitted before the tube to
remove dirt or moisture from the refrigerant.

This device is simple, does not have any moving part and lasts longer. In order to use this
device, the amount of refrigerant in the system must be properly calibrated
Due to its lower cost compared to TXV, this metering device is used in units that are
produced in large quantity such as room or window air conditioners.

Depending on the capacity design of the system, the capillary tube internal diameter that is
commonly used range from 0.031" to 0.065" and the outer diameter from 0.083" to 0.130".

Float Valve is actuated by a float that is immersed in the liquid refrigerant. Both low-side
float and high side-float are used to control the flow of liquid refrigerant.

The low-side float helps to maintain a constant level of liquid refrigerant in the evaporator.
It opens when there is no liquid in the evap. and closes when there is
2.2 TYPES OF REFRIGERENTS
 3. AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENTS

3.1 General Schematic of Air-Conditioning

The general schematic of air-conditioning in a building structure is shown below.

As shown in the schematic, the cycle consists of three basic equipment components and the
transport system.

Equipments:
Pumps, Chillers, FCU/AHU,
Diffusers

Transport System:
Piping, Ducting As per the Chilled Water System as discussed in this report is is further
divided as per its location & application. As per location they are termed as Roof piping,
Riser Piping & Floor Piping. As per application they are called as Supply pipe & Return
pipe. Similarly ducting is also similarly classified on its application.

WINDOW AC
Window air conditioner is sometimes referred to as room air conditioner as well. It is the
simplest form of an air conditioning system and is mounted on windows or walls. It is a
single unit that is assembled in a casing where all the components are located.

This refrigeration unit has a double shaft fan motor with fans mounted on both sides of the
motor. One at the evaporator side and the other at the condenser side.

The evaporator side is located facing the room for cooling of the space and the condenser
side outdoor for heat rejection. There is an insulated partition separating this two sides
within the same casing.

Now that we have seen the various parts of the window air conditioner, let us see its
working. For understanding the working of the window AC please refer the figures given
below. The working of window air conditioner can be explained by separately considering
the two cycles of air: room air cycle and the hot air cycle. The compartments of the room
and hot air are separated by an insulated partition inside the body of the air conditioner. The
setting of thermostat and its working has also been explained in the discussions below
 3.2 SPLIT AC
A split air conditioner consists of two main parts – a compressor located outside and an
inside air outlet unit. Unlike a system that requires a series of ductwork networked
throughout the ceiling, split air conditioners rely on a set of pipes to connect the outdoor to
the inside air unit which is why there are referred to as a ductless mini-split air conditioner
installation. Refrigerant is dispersed through the copper pipes that cycle through the system
to generate either heated or cold air.

Energy wise, a split system with the highest ENERGY STAR rating not only allows your
system to be more energy efficient, it also helps to keep the environment clean and lower
your monthly power bill by using less energy.
 Capacity of split AC

SPLIT AC

PACKAGED ROOF AC

A packaged rooftop unit, or RTU, is a type of HVAC system that contains all the
components needed to provide conditioned air in one concise unit.

Packaged rooftop units are commonly found in light and large commercial applications.
They are very popular with retail and industrial properties.

A packaged rooftop unit is usually a large metal box containing the following components:

— the expansion device

— the evaporator

— the compressor

— the air-cooled condenser

Packaged rooftop units typically connect directly to a ductwork system that distributes the
conditioned air through the space and returns it to the packaged rooftop unit.

Package air conditioner is a bigger version of the window air conditioner. However,
unlike window air conditioner or PTAC units, it has a higher cooling or heating capacity
and is usually able to cool an entire house or a commercial building. The nominal capacities
ranges from 3 tonne to 15 tonne.

An RTU controlled by a thermostat blows and receives conditioned air directly through the
ductwork Here is a look into a basic packaged rooftop unit:
Window air conditioners are basically just small rooftop units!

First, the air returns from the space, passing back to the packaged rooftop unit. Outdoor air is
sometimes also brought into the unit and mixed with the return air in order to produce fresher
air flowing back to the space. From here the air moves through a rack of filters, continuing
on to the cooling coil that chills the air by running it over the cold refrigerant. The refrigerant
is cooled with a standard refrigeration cycle. The air will then flow through both the blower,
leaving it conditioned and ready to be delivered to the space. Some units have small heating
elements near the blowers to further adjust the humidity of the air. In packaged rooftop units,
there is typically a clear and insulated divide in the unit between the evaporator coils that
cool the return air and the condenser coils and compressor rejecting heat to the atmosphere.

A basic thermostat typically controls packaged rooftop units. However, they can be a part of
a more complex control system depending on the application.

There are also some specialized applications for packaged rooftop units. For instance, there
may be a unit on a building that conditions 100% outdoor air. This means that all the air
running through the unit is coming from outside and the unit uses no return air from the
space. These packaged rooftop units are typically called 100% dedicated outdoor air units,
or makeup air units, and require increased insulation, additional parts, and potentially more
energy to accomplish their design criteria.

VRF / VRV AC
The operation logic of the VRF is fully built-in inside the system and is proprietary for each
VRF manufacturer. The system gets inputs from the user (e.g. desired comfort temperature)
and from the surroundings (outside ambient temperature), and according to that data it
implements its logic in order to get to the desired comfort conditions, utilizing optimal
power consumptions.

The ability to adjust itself to the outdoor conditions is one of the main factors that makes
these systems so efficient, compared to the traditional water cooled systems, based on
chillers and fan coils.

Now, let's dive in, and see how it works in details. Let's take as an example a typical
VRF installation, with one outdoor unit and multiple indoors.
At the beginning, the system is in standstill condition (everything is turned off).

Once a user turns one of the indoors "ON" by its local remote, the outdoor "gets noted"
regarding it, and starts working. At this point, it will examine the outdoor conditions
(temperature), the operating indoor requirements (operation mode, set point temperature),
and will operate the compressor at the exact level, required to comply with the indoor
requirements.

When another indoor unit is turned on, the outdoor recalculates the requirements from all
the indoors, and will increase the compressor's output, according to the required level of
demand.
This process is constantly occurring with any change, performed in the HVAC system. As
described, this system is fully automatic, and regulates its power consumption based on the
demand arriving from the indoor units and outside prevailing conditions. User can have
influence on the desired indoor comfort conditions, modifying: Operation mode (on/off),
Operation state (Cool/Heat/Fan/Dry/Auto), setpoint temperature, fan speed
(high/medium/low/auto). Controlling those parameters is the only thing required for proper
operation, and the only thing that is required for proper integration with the VRF system.

VRF SYSTEM TYPES

Cooling only systems (less popular) – those systems can only cool. Heating is not
available. Fan and Dry modes are available for each indoor unit independently.
Heat Pump systems (most popular) – all the indoor units can either heat, or cool (not at
the same time). Fan and Dry modes are available for each indoor unit independently.
Heat Recovery systems (less popular) – those systems are the most sophisticated ones,
where cooling and heating may be available by each indoor unit, independently, at the same
time

VRF System, Capacity: 5 Ton To 120 Ton

 VRF AC SYSTEM

CENTRAL AC
A central air conditioner is like a giant refrigerator for your house. In fact, it employs the
same types of components, materials, and systems as a refrigerator, including a refrigerant
that changes from liquid to gas and back to liquid as it travels through a system of tubes
and coils or fins that collect and give off heat.
As it goes through this cycle, it gathers heat from one place and transfers it to another. At
the same time, it creates cold (the absence of heat) in one place and delivers that chill to
another. In the case of an air conditioner that place receiving the cold is an air handler or
furnace cabinet that is equipped with a blower that pushes the chilled air throughout your
house.
The air handler or furnace is typically located in an out-of-the-way place such as a
basement or attic. This appliance pumps chilled air throughout the house through a system
of air ducts—often the same system utilized by a forced-air furnace during the heating
season. One or more thermostats in the house serve as the controls for turning the cooling
system off and on as room temperatures rise and fall.

A central air conditioner runs on electricity. During summer months, when it runs a lot, it
can consume a lot of energy, so the efficiency of the air conditioner can be a very
important feature. If you’re buying a new air conditioner, this means choosing one that is
designed for energy efficiency and sized properly for your house.

First, the air-handling unit kicks on, drawing room air in from various parts of the house
through return-air ducts. This air is pulled through one or more filters, where airborne
particles such as dust and lint are removed—in fact, sophisticated filters may remove
microscopic pollutants as well. Then the air is routed to air-supply ductwork through
which the blower pushes it back to the rooms.

Every air conditioner has three main parts: a condenser, an evaporator, and a
compressor. With a typical “split system,” the condenser and the compressor are
located in an outdoor unit. The evaporator is mounted on or in the air-handling unit,
which is often a forced-air furnace. With a “package system,” all of the components are
combined in a single outdoor unit that may be located on the ground or on the roof.
A central air conditioner cools with an outdoor compressor and condenser coil connected to
an indoor furnace fitted with an evaporator coil.

Refrigerant circulates through copper tubing that runs between the evaporator and the
condenser. This refrigerant receives and releases heat as it raises and lowers in
temperature, changing from liquid to gas and then back to liquid. The refrigerant is
especially cold when it begins to circulate through the indoor coil.

As the air handler pushes warm air across the coil, the refrigerant absorbs so much heat
from the air that it turns into vapor. As a vapor, it travels to the outdoor compressor, which
pressurizes it and moves it through the outdoor coil. There it jettisons the heat through
coils or thin metal “fins.” A fan in the compressor also helps to dissipate the heat. The
refrigerant then passes through an expansion device that converts it to a low-pressure, low-
temperature liquid, which returns to the indoor coil. And so the cycle goes.

Air-Conditioning Equipment
The generally used machines for the air-conditioning of buildings such as HRB & LRB are
as
Follows

Chillers
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) chillers are refrigeration systems that
provide cooling for industrial and commercial applications. They use water, oils or other
fluids as refrigerants. HVAC chillers include a compressor, condenser, thermal expansion
valve, evaporator, reservoir, and stabilization assembly.
Compressing the refrigerant creates a high pressure, superheated gas that the condenser air-
cools to a warm liquid. The thermal expansion valve (TXV) releases refrigerant into the
evaporator, converting the warm liquid to a cool, dry gas. Often, a hot gas bypass is used to
stabilize the cooling output by allowing the hot gas to warm up the evaporator. This causes a
reduction in cooling efficiency, but stabilizes the chilled water temperatures. When water is
pumped from the reservoir to the compressor, the chilling cycle begins again.

CHILLER

- HVAC chillers vary in terms of condenser cooling method, cooling specifications and
process pump specifications.
- They are classified as Air-Cooled & Water-Cooled on basis of condenser cooling methods.
- They can be placed in series or parallel arrangement as required.

Air-cooled devices use a fan to force air over the condenser coils. By contrast, water-cooled
devices fill the condenser coils with circulating water. Remote air or slit systems locate the
main part of the chiller in the application area and position the condenser remotely, usually
outdoors. Cooling specifications for HVAC chillers include cooling capacity, fluid
discharge temperature, and compressor motor horsepower. Typically, cooling capacity is
measured in kilowatts or tons of refrigeration. Compressor motor horsepower is a nominal
value. Process pump specifications include process flow, process pressure, and pump rating.
HVAC chillers include a local or remote control panel with temperature and pressure
indicators. Some devices include microprocessor controls, emergency alarms, and an
integral pump. In industrial application, chilled water or other liquid from the chiller is
pumped through process or laboratory equipment. Industrial chillers are used for controlled
cooling of products, mechanisms and factory machinery in a wide range of industries. They
are often used in the plastic industry in injection and blow molding, metal working cutting
oils, welding equipment, die-casting and machine tooling, chemical processing,
pharmaceutical formulation, food and beverage processing, paper and cement processing,
vacuum systems, X-ray diffraction, power supplies and power generation stations, analytical
equipment, semiconductors, compressed air and gas cooling. They are also used to cool
high-heat specialized items such as MRI machines and lasers, and in hospitals, hotels and
campuses.
Chillers for industrial applications can be centralized, where a single chiller serves multiple
cooling needs, or decentralized where each application or machine has its own chiller. Each
approach has its advantages. It is also possible to have a combination of both centralized
and decentralized chillers, especially if the cooling requirements are the same for some
applications or points of use, but not all. Decentralized chillers are usually small in size and
cooling capacity, usually from 0.2 tons to 10 tons. Centralized chillers generally have
capacities ranging from ten tons to hundreds or thousands of tons.

Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial,
industrial, and institutional (CII) facilities. Water chillers can be water-cooled, air-cooled, or
evaporatively cooled. Water-cooled chillers incorporate the use of cooling towers which
improve the chillers' thermodynamic effectiveness as compared to air-cooled chillers. This
is due to heat rejection at or near the air's wet-bulb temperature rather than the higher,
sometimes much higher, dry-bulb temperature. Evaporatively cooled chillers offer higher
efficiencies than air-cooled chillers but lower than water-cooled chillers. Water-cooled
chillers are typically intended for indoor installation and operation, and are cooled by a
separate condenser water loop and connected to outdoor cooling towers to expel heat to the
atmosphere. Air-cooled and evaporatively cooled chillers are intended for outdoor
installation and operation. Air-cooled machines are directly cooled by ambient air being
mechanically circulated directly through the machine's condenser coil to expel heat to the
atmosphere.

Types of Chillers:
Depending on the type of cooling medium, the chillers are can be broadly classified as
Air Cooled Chillers: Air-cooled chillers have many advantages over water-cooled
equipment. While it is true that water-cooled equipment can offer better performance, by the
time the condenser pumps and water cooling tower fans are included, the performance
difference is not as big as you might think. In fact, at part load conditions, there might not
be any difference at all. The biggest advantage of using air cooled chillers is that they do not
require cooling towers or condenser water pumps. While this has traditionally made air-
cooled chillers very popular with small to medium projects, it is becoming more common to
see large plants (2,000 tons and larger) that use air-cooled chillers. Another advantage of
air-cooled chillers is they do not require a mechanical room for the chiller. This frees up
considerable space for occupant use. Like all products, air-cooled chillers have special
needs when applying them in a design. The following are several of the key items that
should be addressed to achieve a proper operating chiller plant and a satisfied customer.
Air Circulation: Air-cooled chillers generate a lot of heat. Consider a 400-ton air-cooled
 Air Cooled Chillers

be rejected to atmosphere. Air-cooled products use a sensible heat transfer process so the
refrigerant condensing temperature must be higher than the ambient temperature. The
performance of a chiller can be given at many different ambient temperatures, but the
industry norm is to use 95°F.
 Water Cooled Chillers:

Water Cooled Chillers

CONSTANT FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

A constant flow system is the simplest chilled water distribution scheme. Here, a set of
constant speed pumps distributes fixed quantity of water at all times and the temperature
varies to meet the load. The system uses 3-way control valves at air handler coils that allow
some water to bypass the cooling coil during part load conditions. At low loads, the chilled
water flow through the cooling coil is restricted (in response to supply air temperatures to
the space) but the total quantity returned to the chiller remains constant. Figure below shows
the schematic of the constant-flow rate primary system. Looking at the equation that
governs heat transfer, the capacity of a chiller is proportional to
the product of flow rate and the temperature difference of entering and leaving chilled
water,

Fan Coil Units

A fan coil unit (FCU) is a simple device consisting of a heating or cooling coil and fan. The
fan is a centrifugal type driven by electric motor with fan mounted on the rotor shaft. FCU’s
can be both ducted or without ductwork as required by its application. The capacity of an
FCU ranges from 100-2000 CFM. The chilled water from the Chillers is pumped into the
coil of the FCU which cools up the coils. The blower or fan blows the air thru the coils thus
reducing the temperature of the air as required. These are normally placed in the false
ceilings randomly as per the zones to supply conditioned air.

FCU UNIT
Pumps
Pumps are devices used to force the fluid movement thru the piping system.
Types of Pumps:
- Centrifugal Pumps
a) Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps
b) Vertical Centrifugal Pumps
- Reciprocating Pumps.
Pumps: The type of pump used to distribute chilled water through the chilled water system
varies with the system design. There are two basic types of pumps: positive displacement
and centrifugal

that serve no other major building function, and it is generally relatively independent of the
underlying architectural elements of the building.
Alternatively, space heat may be added or removed by a system designed to make use of
naturally occurring environmental forces. Such a system is termed a passive system. A
passive system has the following general characteristics: it utilizes renewable site resources
for energy inputs, it usually involves c omponents that are integral parts of other building
systems, and it is usually so tightly interwoven with the basic architectural fabric of a
building that removal would be difficult. Control of an HVAC system is critical to its
successful operation.

The issue of system control leads to the concept of HVAC zoning. During the design
process, a zone is defined as a region of a building that requires separate control if comfort
is to be provided for occupants.

HVAC system components may be grouped into three functional categories:

source components, distribution components, and delivery components. Source components
provide or remove heat or moisture.
Distribution components convey a heating or cooling medium from a source location to
portions of a building that require conditioning
 Delivery components serve as an interface between the distribution system and occupied
spaces.
Compact systems that serve only one space or zone of a building (local systems) often
incorporate all three functions in a single piece of equipment. Systems that are intended to
condition multiple spaces in a building (central systems) usually have distinctly different
equipment elements for each function.

Diffusers
Diffusers are the terminal units located in each space/room to be provided with conditioned
air. They are placed in the center of each room for proper distribution of air to every corner.
They are different types of diffusers as per the directions of flow like,
o One Way Diffuser
o Two Way Diffuser
o Three Way Diffuser
o Four Way Diffuser
o Circular Diffuser
The other equipments used in here include Volume control dampers, Smoke dampers as per
the requirement of the flow of air. They are sized as per the sizes of the duct as done in the
next chapter.

Expansion Tanks: Expansion tanks are used in chilled water systems for two
purposes.First, expansion tanks allow for thermal expansion of the chilled water that, if not
for the expansion tank, could damage the piping system. Secondly, the expansion tank
provides a location for makeup water to be admitted to the system. The expansion tank is
connected to the chilled water system on the inlet (suction) side of the distribution pump(s)
by a branch line. The makeup water line is typically connected to this branch line between
the expansion tank and the main pump inlet pipe.

Control Valves: Control valves are used in chilled water systems to control the flow
ofchilled water through the piping system. The control system positions the valve through a
valve operator or actuator that is directly attached to the valve stem. The valve operator
oractuator uses electricity, compressed air, or hydraulic fluid to move the valve stem
throughits operating range.

Thermal storage: Thermal storage is the temporary storage of high- or low-temperature

energy for later use. The purpose of thermal storage is to lower overall energy costs by
generating and storing cooling medium during periods when electrical rates are at their
lowest (off-peak). This occurs typically during the night or during periods of light
airconditioning load

Heat exchanger:. A heat exchanger is any device that affects the transfer of thermal energy
from one fluid to another. In the simplest exchangers, the hot and cold fluids mix directly;
more common are those in which the fluids are separated by a wall.
Common heat exchangers include the flat-plate, shell and- tube, and cross-flow types. A
double -pipe heat exchanger, the simplest form of the shell-and-tube, can have the fluids
both flow in the same direction. It is referred to as a parallel-flow type. If they flow in
opposite directions, it is referred to as a counter-flow type. A shell-and-tube exchanger may
also have several tubes, two-passes, and baffles. In cross-flow heat exchangers, the fluids
flow at right angles to each other. The evaporator and condenser sections of water chillers
are examples of shell-and-tube type heat exchangers that are an integral part of the water
chiller package. Heat exchangers are also designed and used as stand-alone thermal heat
transfer devices in chilled water systems, heating water systems, and steam systems

Strainers: Strainers are defined as closed vessels with cleanable screen elements designed
to
remove and retain foreign particles down to 0.001 inch diameter from various flow fluids. A
strainer differs from a filter in that strainers trap particles that are typically visible to the
naked eye. Strainers are typically installed in chilled water systems on the inlet (suction)
side
of the distribution pumps.

Air separators: All chilled water systems use air separators to remove air (gas) bubbles that
have become entrained in the water. One type of air separator is simply a tank constructed
so
that the chilled water inlet is not in a direct line with the outlet from the tank. The diameter
of
the tank is large compared to the chilled water piping. As the chilled water enters the
expansion tank, the flow is slowed down considerably. This slowing of the flow, together
with the change in direction of the chilled water flow, allows the air to rise to the surface of
the tank or into the expansion tank to be vented. A more common type of air separator is a
mechanical type air separator with a tangential entry that causes the chilled water to spin
down from an upper entry to a tower discharge. The resulting turbulence enhances the air
separation. Tangential entry mechanical separators generally require less space than tank
type
separators, but require that the circulating pump be capable of producing higher differential
pressures. The air separator is typically installed in the chilled water supply piping between
the chiller and the distribution pump. Air separators should be fabricated, tested, and
certified
in accordance with the appropriate sections of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers
(ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for unfired pressure vessels.

Valves: Valves installed in the chilled water system are used to control water flow and to
isolate equipment for ease of maintenance. Most valves in a chilled water system are
manually operated with a hand wheel or lever operator.
 Psychometrics

Psychometrics is the science of studying the thermodynamic properties of moist air.

It is widely used to illustrate and analyze the change in properties and the thermal
characteristics of the air-conditioning process and cycles.

Psychometric Charts
A psychometric chart's a graphical presentation of the thermodynamic properties of moist
air and various air-conditioning processes and air-conditioning cycles. A psychometric chart
also helps in calculating and analyzing the work and energy transfer of various air
conditioning processes and cycles.

Relative Humidity: Is defined as the amount of water vapour present in a sample of air to
saturated air expressed in percentage
.
Dry Bulb Temperature: It is the temperature measured by an ordinary thermometer; it is
the indication of the sensible heat
.
Wet Bulb Temperature: It is the temperature measured by an ordinary thermometer with
the bulb covered by an wetted cloth. It is the indication of latent heat.

Dew Point Temperature: It is the threshold temperature below which the moisture starts
condensing into liquid.

Specific Humidity or Moisture Content: The weight of water vapor in grains or pounds of
moisture per pound of dry air.

Enthalpy: It is a thermal property indicating the quantity of heat in the air above an
arbitrary datum in BTU per pound of dry air. The datum for dry air is 0°F and for moisture
content 32°F water.

Sensible Heat Factor: The ratio of sensible to total heat.

 4. CALCULATION OF HEAT LOADS

Principles of Heat Transfer

The three basic principles of Heat Transfer are as given,
1) Heat energy cannot be destroyed; it can only be transferred to another substance.
To produce cooling, heat must be removed from a substance by transferring the heat to
another substance. This is commonly referred to as the principle of "conservation of
energy." Ice cubes are typically placed in a beverage to cool it before being served. As heat
is transferred from the beverage to the ice, the temperature of the beverage is lowered. The
heat removed from the be verage is not destroyed, but instead is absorbed by the ice,
melting the ice from a solid to a liquid

Heat Transfer

2) Heat energy naturally flows from a higher-temperature substance to a lower

temperature substance, in other words, from hot to cold.
Heat cannot naturally flow from a cold substance to a hot substance. Consider the example
of the beverage and the ice cubes. Because the temperature of the beverage is higher than
the temperature of the ice cubes, heat will always flow from the beverage to the ice cubes.

3) Heat energy is transferred from one substance to another by one of three basic
processes: conduction, convection, or radiation. Methods of Heat Transfer
The device shown is a baseboard convector that is commonly used for heating a space. It
can be used to demonstrate all three processes of transferring heat. Hot water flows through
a tube inside the convector, warming the inside surface of the tube. Heat is transferred, by
conduction, through the tube wall to the slightly cooler fins that are attached to the outside
surface of the tube. Conduction is the process of transferring heat through a solid. The heat
is then transferred to the cool air that comes into contact with the fins. As the air is warmed
and becomes less dense, it rises, carrying the heat away from the fins and out of the
convector
This air movement is known as convection current. Convection is the process of transferring
heat as the result of the movement of a fluid. Convection often occurs as the result of the
natural movement of air caused by temperature (density) differences.

Additionally, heat is radiated from the warm cabinet of the convector and warms cooler
objects within the space. Radiation is the process of transferring heat by means of
electromagnetic waves, emitted due to the temperature difference between two objects. An
interesting thing about radiated heat is that it does not heat the air between the source and
the object it contacts; it only heats the object itself.

Measuring Heat Quantity

In the I–P system of units, the unit for measuring the quantity of heat is the British thermal
unit (Btu). The Btu is defined as the quantity of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water 1°F. Similarly, in the System International (SI) system, heat
quantity can be

RADIATION
WARM AIR
COOL AIR
CONVECTION
CONDUCTION
COLD WATER

Expressed using the unit kilo Joule (kJ). A kcal is defined as the amount of heat energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water 1°C. One kcal is equal to 4.19 kJ. In
heating and cooling applications, however, emphasis is placed on the rate of heat transfer,
that is, the quantity of heat that flows from one substance to another within a given period of
time. This rate of heat flow is commonly expressed in terms of Btu/hr—the quantity of heat,
in Btu, that flows from one substance to another during a period of 1 hour. Similarly, in the
SI metric system of units, the rate of heat flow is expressed in terms of kilowatts (kW). One
kW is equivalent to 1 kJ/sec. One kilowatts describes the quantity of heat, in kJ, that flows
from one substance to another during a period of 1 second. Finally, the rate of heat flow
may often be expressed in terms of watts (W). One kW is equivalent to 1000 W.

Cooling Loads Classified By Kinds Of Heat

There are two components of air conditioning load 1) Sensible Load (Heat gain) 2) Latent
Load (Water Vapour Gain)

Sensible Loads
Sensible heat gain is the direct addition of heat to a space, which results in increase of space
temperature.
1) Solar heat gain through building envelope (Exterior walls, glazing, skylights, roofs, floors
over crawl space)
2) Partitions
3) Ventilation air and air infiltration through cracks in the building, doors and windows.
4) People in the building
5) Equipment and appliances in the summer.
6) Lights
Latent Loads
A latent heat gain is the heat contained in water vapor. It is the heat that must be removed to
condense the moisture out of the air.
1) People breathing
2) Cooking Equipment
3) Appliances
4) Ventilation air and air infiltration

Detailed Description Of Cooling Loads

The cooling toad is more complicated than the heating load to calculate. In the cooling load
the walls and windows are to be calculated for each side of the building. The heat transfer
through the roof is to be determined. The slab is not to be calculated due to there is no heat
gain from the ground. The internal gains (people, equipment, lights) are to be considered.
The weather data is based on ASHRAE design data.

Wall: The material for the walls is the same so therefore the Rf is the same for the cooling
as it is in the heating. The area of the wall will also be the same. The cooling load
temperature difference (CLTD) is to be determined. The CLTD takes into account the
transient effects of the conductive heat gains and radioactive heat gains that do not enter the
indoor air directly. The CLTD is determined by the type of wall and which direction the
wall is facing. The
CLTD is different for each direction. The heat flow through the walls is calculated by the
following equation:

Q = U*A(CLTD)

Where,
A is the area of the wall
U is the Coefficient of Heat Transfer
CLTD is the cooling load temperature difference for the wall

Windows: The windows are calculated in two parts, for conduction and the heat gain due to
solar radiation transmitted through or absorbed by glass.

The conduction heat flow for the windows is calculated closely to the same manner as in the
heating load. The U value is found in the same manner as for the heating load calculations,
but reflects the summer months. The CLTD is also determined for the windows. The heat
flow through the windows due to conduction is calculated by the following equation
Q = U*A(CLTD)

Where,
U is in verse of the resistance of the window
A is the area of the windows
CLTD is the cooling load temperature difference for the window.
The solar heat gain through the windows is to be calculated separately for the different
directions the windows are facing. A shading coefficient (SC) is determined by the type of
glazing and by the thickness of each glazing. The north latitude, the direction facing, and the
month with the highest average temperature determine the solar heat gain factor. The type of
furnishings, the thickness of the slab, the room air circulation, the solar time, and the facing
direction determine the cooling load factor (CLF). The heat flow by solar heat gain
calculated by the following equation:

Q = A*SC*SHGF*CLF

Where,
A is the area of the windows
SC is the shading coefficient
SHGF is solar heat gain factor
CLF is the cooling load factor

Roof
The material of the roof is the same therefore the R( is the same as calculated in the heating
calculations. The area is also the same. The materials of the roof and the solar time are used
to determine the CLTD for the roof. The heat flow through the roof is calculated by the
following equation:

Q=U*A(CLTD

Where,
A is the area of the roof
Z is the resistance of the roof components
CLTD is the cooling load temperature difference for the roof

Lights
The heat gain for the lights is dependent upon several factors. The CLF for the lights is
determined by the type of furnishings inside the building, the slab construction thickness,
the air circulation rate, and the amount of time the lights are turned on. The total wattage
from all of the lights also needs to be known. A special ballast allowance factor is taken into
account.
Variations of the actual wattage are taken into account by the diversity factor. The heat gain
from the light is calculated by the following equation:

Q = Watts*Fu*Fs*CLF

Where,
Watts is the total wattage from all of the lights
Fu is the diversity factor
Fs is the ballast special allowance factor
CLF is the cooling load factor for the lights

People: The heat gain by the occupants in the building is separated into sensible and latent.
The number of people, the type of activity they are performing, and the CLF determines the
sensible heat. The CLF is determined by the time the occupants come into the building and
for how long they stay in the building. The sensible heat gain by the occupants is calculated
by the following equation:

Q = N*qM*Of
Where,
N is the number of people
Q (sensitive) is the sensible heat gain per person
CLF is the cooling load factor for the occupants
The number of people and the type of activity they are performing determines the latent heat
gain. The latent gain is assumed to immediately translate onto the cooling load and for this
reason there is no CLF. The latent heat gain by the occupants is calculated by the following
equation:
Q = N* Qiat
Where,
N is the number of people,
Q(latent) is the latent heat gain per person
a
Equipment: The heat gain by the equipment is determined by the wattage and the CLF for
the equipment. The CLF is found by the operational hours and the time the equipment is
turned on. This must be found for each individual piece of equipment. The heat gain by each
individual piece of equipment is calculated by the following equation:

O = Watts*CLF

Where,
Watts is the wattage of the equipment
CLF is the cooling load factor for the equipment
The total heat gain by the equipment is the sum of the heat gain by the individual pieces of
equipment.

Infiltration
The infiltration is separated into sensible and latent heat gains. The sensible heat gain is
calculated in the same manner as for the heating load. The air change method is used again
to find the heat flow due to infiltration. The mass flow rate of the air is calculated by the
following equation:

m = Vol*(ACH}*p (air)

Where,
Vol is the volume of the building
ACH is the estimated air changes per hour
Once the mass flow rate of the air is found then the heat flow for the infiltration is
calculated by the following equation:

Q = m*Cp(To-Ti)

Where,
m is the mass flow rate of the air
Cp is the specific heat of air
Ti is the inside temperature
T0 is the outside temperature
The latent heat gain is determined by the mass flow rate, the humidity ratio for the inside
and
outside air, and the enthalpy and the saturation point for the weather data. The latent heat
gain
for infiltration is calculated by the following equation:
Q = m(W0-Wi)hfg
Where,
m is the mass flow rate of the air
W0 is the humidity ratio of the outside air
W, is the humidity ratio of the inside air
hfg is the latent heat of vaporization of water
The total cooling load for the space is determined by the summation of all of the previously
calculated heat gains. The cooling load for the cooling coils must now be determined. This
is where the ventilation is incorporated in the cooling load.

Information Required (Inputs)

Before a cooling or heating load can be properly estimated a complete survey must be made
of the physical data The more exact the information that can be obtained about space
characteristics, heat load sources, location of equipment and services, weather data, etc. The
more accurate will be the load estimate.

Required Input - External Loads - Cooling

For calculation of the outdoor loads, the input information should include
1. Orientation and dimensions of building components
2. Construction materials for roof, walls, ceiling, interior partitions, floors and fenestration
3. Size and use of space to be conditioned
4. Surroundings conditions, outdoors and in adjoining spaces

Calculation of Total Heat Load

The Heat Load Calculation sheets for the project building as per each room/space are as
given below. The values required herein for further calculations are the Tonnage and
Litre/second flow of air of each room/space.
 5. DUCTING SYSTEM
Ductwork should be designed in accordance with the provisions of the ASHRAE Handbook
of Fundamentals, or the Sheet Metal and Air Condition Contractor’s National Association
(SMACNA) HVAC System Duct Design Manual. Installation of ductwork should comply
with SMACNA HVAC Duct Construction Standards.

a. Design Considerations
(1) Minimize the number of fittings.—Fittings are expensive and cause significant
increases in pressure loss compared to straight duct.

(2) Use semi-extended plenums.—Plenums reduce the number of transition fittings and
facilitate balancing. Figures 1, 2, and 3, illustrate how use of the extended plenum concept
can reduce the number of fittings and simplify a duct design.

(3) Seal ductwork.—Standard duct sealing requirements are shown on table 1. Table 2
shows air leakage from the longitudinal seams of unsealed ductwork. The Longitudinal
seam leakage for metal duct is approximately 10 to 15 percent of the total duct leakage.
 Table 1.—Standard duct sealing requirements
Seal class Sealing requirements Pressure class
Inches w.g pa
A Class A: All Transverse joints, 4- and up 1,000
longitudinal seams, and duct
wall penetrations
B Class B: All Transverse joints 3 750
and longitudinal seams only
C Class C: All Transverse joints 2 500
only

In addition to the above, any variable volume system duct of 1-in. w.g. (250 Pa) and 2-in. w.g. (125 Pa) construction class
that is upstream of the VAV boxes shall meet Seal Class C. SMACNA HCAC Duct

COMPONENTS OF DUCTING SYSTEM

Duct System: the air conditioning air ducts (or ductwork) (or heat pump duct work) carry
conditioned air from the air handler to various rooms in the occupied spaces of the building.

Return air ducts bring air from the occupied space to the air handler. In some installations
only a single return air register and return air duct may be installed, usually in the ceiling
over a stairwell in a two-story home; where multiple return ducts are provided you will find
two or more return registers in the building; If you observe that most rooms have only a
supply register and duct and no individual return air ducts, keeping the room doors open
will probably improve air circulation and reduce heating or cooling costs for the building.

Supply air ducts bring air from the air handler (where it has been cooled and dehumidified,
or heated if a heat pump is in heating mode) back into the occupied spaces in the building.
Where each supply duct enters a room through the room ceiling, wall, or floor, a
finned supply register should be installed to permit control of the direction and amount of
air that exits the duct at that location.

MATERIALS OF DUCT:
Ducts can be made out of the following materials
1. Galvanized steel
2. Aluminium (Al)
3. Polyurethane and phenolic insulation panels (pre-insulated air ducts)
4. Fiber glass duct board (pre-insulated non-metallic ductwork)
5. Flexible ducting
6. Fabric ducting
7. PVC low-profile ducting
8. Waterproofing
Classification of duct systems:
Ducts are classified based on the load on duct due to air pressure and turbulence. The
classification varies from application to application, such as for residences, commercial
systems, industrial systems etc. For example, one such classification is given below:
Low pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 5 cm H O (g)
2
Medium pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 15 cm H O (g)
2
High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s, static pressure 15<p ≤ 25 cm H O (g)
s 2
High velocities in the ducts results in:
1. Smaller ducts and hence, lower initial cost and lower space requirement
2. Higher pressure drop and hence larger fan power consumption
3. Increased noise and hence a need for noise attenuation
Recommended air velocities depend mainly on the application and the noise criteria.
Typical recommended velocities are:
Residences: 3 m/s to 5 m/s
Theatres: 4 to 6.5 m/s
Restaurants: 7.5 m/s to 10 m/s
If nothing is specified, then a velocity of 5 to 8 m/s is used for main ducts and a velocity of
4 to 6 m/s is used for the branches. The allowable air velocities can be as high as 30 m/s in
ships and aircrafts to reduce the space requirement.

Commonly used duct design methods:

Figure 38.1 shows the schematic of a typical supply air duct layout. As shown in the figure,
supply air from the fan is distributed to five outlets (1 to 5), which are located in five
different conditioned zones. The letters A to I denote the portions of the duct to different
outlets. Thus A-B is the duct running from the supply air fan to zone 1, A-B-C is the duct
running from supply fan to conditioned zone and so on. These are known as duct runs. The
run with the highest pressure drop is called as the index run. From load and psychrometric
calculations the required supply airflow rates to each conditioned space are known. From
the building layout and the location of the supply fan, the length of each duct run is known.
The purpose of the duct design is to select suitable dimensions of duct for each run and then
to select a fan, which can provide the required supply airflow rate to each conditioned zone.

Due to the several issues involved, the design of an air conditioning duct system in large
buildings could be a sophisticated operation requiring the use of Computer Aided Design
(CAD) software. However, the following methods are most commonly used for simpler lay-
outs are
1.Velocity method
2. Equal Friction Method
3. Static Regain method
1. Velocity method:
The various steps involved in this method are:
i. Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts
ii. Find the diameters of main and branch ducts from airflow rates and velocities
for circular ducts. For rectangular ducts, find the cross-sectional area from flow
rate and velocity, and then by fixing the aspect ratio, find the two sides of the
rectangular duct
iii. From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous step, find
the frictional pressure drop for main and branch ducts using friction chart or
equation.
iv. From the duct layout, dimensions and airflow rates, find the dynamic pressure
losses for all the bends and fittings
v. Select a fan that can provide sufficient FTP for the index run
vi. Balancing dampers have to be installed in each run. The damper in the index
run is left completely open, while the other dampers are throttled to reduce
the flow rate to the required design values.

The velocity method is one of the simplest ways of designing the duct system for both supply and
return air. However, the application of this method requires selection of suitable velocities in
different duct runs, which requires experience. Wrong selection of velocities can lead to very large
ducts, which, occupy large building space and increases the cost, or very small ducts which lead to
large pressure drop and hence necessitates the selection of a large fan leading to higher fan cost
and running cost. In addition, the method is not very efficient as it requires partial closing of all the
dampers except the one in the index run, so that the total pressure drop in each run will be same.

Equal friction method:

In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length in the main and branch ducts
(Δpf/L) are kept same, i.e.,

Then the stepwise procedure for designing the duct system is as follows:
i. Select a suitable frictional pressure drop per unit length (Δp /L) so that the combined
f
initial and running costs are minimized.
ii. Then the equivalent diameter of the main duct (A) is obtained from the selected value of
(Δpf/L) and the airflow.
the main duct is equal to the sum total of airflow rates to all the conditioned zones, i.e.,
QA

From the airflow rate and (Δpf/L) the equivalent diameter of the main duct (Deq,A) can be
obtained either from the friction chart or using the frictional pressure drop equation, i.e.,
iii. Since the frictional pressure drop per unit length is same for all the duct runs, the
equivalent diameters of the other duct runs, B to I are obtained from the equation:

iv. If the ducts are rectangular, then the two sides of the rectangular duct of each run are
obtained from the equivalent diameter of that run and by fixing aspect ratio as explained
earlier. Thus the dimensions of the all the duct runs can be obtained. The velocity of air
through each duct is obtained from the volumetric flow rate and the cross-sectional area.

v. Next from the dimensions of the ducts in each run, the total frictional pressure drop of
that run is obtained by multiplying the frictional pressure drop per unit length and the
length, i.e.,

vi. Next the dynamic pressure losses in each duct run are obtained based on the type of
bends or fittings used in that run.

vii. Next the total pressure drop in each duct run is obtained by summing up the frictional
and dynamic losses of that run, i.e.,

viii Next the fan is selected to suit the index run with the highest pressure loss. Dampers
are installed in all the duct runs to balance the total pressure loss.

Equal friction method is simple and is most widely used conventional method. This
method usually yields a better design than the velocity method as most of the available
pressure drop is dissipated as friction in the duct runs, rather than in the balancing dampers.
This method is generally suitable when the ducts are not too long, and it can be used for
both supply and return ducts. However, similar to velocity method, the equal friction
method also requires partial closure of dampers in all but the index run, which may generate
noise. If the ducts are too long then the total pressure drop will be high and due to
dampering, ducts near the fan get over-pressurized.

3. Static Regain Method:

This method is commonly used for high velocity systems with long duct runs, especially in
large systems. In this method the static pressure is maintained same before each terminal or
branch. The procedure followed is as given below:
i. Velocity in the main duct leaving the fan is selected first.
ii.Velocities in each successive runs are reduced such that the gain in static pressure due to
reduction in velocity pressure equals the frictional pressure drop in the next duct section.
Thus the static pressure before each terminal or branch is maintained constant. For
example,
a part of the duct run with two sections 1 and 2 before two branch take-offs. The velocity at
1 is greater than that at 2, such that the static pressure is same at 1 and 2. Then using the
static regain factor, one can write:

where Δpf,2 and Δpd,2 are the frictional and dynamic losses between 1 and 2, and pv,1 and
pv,2 are the velocity pressures at 1 and 2 respectively.

ps,1=ps,2

Principle of static regain method

i. If section 1 is the outlet of the fan, then its dimensions are known from the flow rate
and velocity (initially selected), however, since both the dimensions and velocity at
section 2 are not known, a trial-and-error method has to be followed to solve the above
equation, which gives required dimensions of the section at 2.

ii. The procedure is followed in the direction of airflow, and the dimensions of the
downstream ducts are obtained.

iii. As before, the total pressure drop is obtained from the pressure drop in the longest run
and a fan is accordingly selected.

Static Regain method yields a more balanced system and does not call for
unnecessary dampering. However, as velocity reduces in the direction of airflow, the duct
size may increase in the airflow direction. Also the velocity at the exit of the longer duct
runs may become too small for proper air distribution in the conditioned space.

Performance of duct systems:

 For the duct system with air in turbulent flow, the total pressure loss (Δpt) is
proportional to the square of flow rate; i.e.,

where C is the resistance offered by the duct system. Once the duct system is designed
and installed, the value of C is supposed to remain constant. However, if the air filters
installed in the duct become dirty and/or if the damper position is altered, then the value
of C changes. Thus variation of total pressure drop with airflow rate is parabolic in
nature as shown in Fig. 38.3. In this figure, the curve A refers to the performance of the
duct at design conditions, while curve B refers to the performance under the conditions
of a dirty filter and/or a higher damper closure and curve C refers to the performance
when the damper is opened more.

From the duct characteristic curve for constant resistance, one can write

Thus knowing the total pressure drop and airflow rate at design condition (say 1), one
can obtain the total pressure drop at an off-design condition 2, using the above equation.

pt B

.
Q
 System balancing and optimization:

In large buildings, after the Air Handling Unit is installed, it has to be balanced
for satisfactory performance. System balancing requires as a first step, measurements of
actual airflow rates at all supply air outlets and return air inlets. Then the dampers are
adjusted so that the actual measured flow rate corresponds to the specified flow rates.
System balancing may also require adjusting the fan speed to get required temperature
drop across the cooling or heating coils and required airflow rates in the conditioned
zone. Balancing a large air conditioning system can be a very expensive and time
consuming method and may require very accurate instruments for measuring air flow
rates and temperatures. However, system balancing is always recommended to get the
full benefit from the total cost incurred on air conditioning system.

Large air conditioning systems require optimization of the duct design so as to

minimize the total cost, which includes the initial cost of the system and the lifetime
operating cost. At present very sophisticated commercial computer software are available
for optimizing the duct design. One such method is called as T-Method. The reader
should refer to advanced textbooks or ASHRAE handbooks for details on duct
optimization methods.
 Fans:

The fan is an essential and one of the most important components of almost all air
conditioning systems. Thus a basic understanding of fan performance characteristics is
essential in the design of air conditioning systems. The centrifugal fan is most commonly
used in air conditioning systems as it can efficiently move large quantities of air over a
large range of pressures. The operating principle of a centrifugal fan is similar to that of a
centrifugal compressor discussed earlier. The centrifugal fan with forward-curved blades is
widely used in low-pressure air conditioning systems. The more efficient backward-curved
and airfoil type fans are used in large capacity, high-pressure systems.

Fan laws:

The fan laws are a group of relations that are used to predict the effect of change of
operating parameters of the fan on its performance. The fan laws are valid for fans,
which are geometrically and dynamically similar. The fan laws have great practical use,
as it is not economically feasible to test fans of all sizes under all possible conditions.

The important operating parameters of a fan of fixed diameter are:

1. Density of air () which depends on its temperature and pressure

2. Operating speed of the fan ( in rps), and
3. Size of the fan.

Here the fan laws related to the density of air and the rotative speed of the fan are
considered. The effect of the size of the fan is important at the time of designing the fan.
For a given air conditioning system with fixed dimensions, fittings etc. it can be easily
shown that: