DRAINAGE

AND
SLOPE
PROTECTION
GROUP 5
 WHAT IS DRAINAGE?
• Defined as the means of collecting, transporting and disposing of
surface water originating in or near the right of way, or flowing in
stream crossings.

• About 25% of roadway funds are spent for culverts, bridges and other
drainage structures.

• Surface drainage is only one among the many problems to be

considered in establishing the location and construction of roads
 SURFACE DRAINAGE
PROBLEMS CONSIDERATIONS
Hydraulic Design
• Deals with estimating the highest rate of run-off to be handled.
• Deals with the selection of the kinds and sizes of he drainage
facilities that is most economical to accommodate the estimated
water flow.

Erosion Control
• Ascertain the design will not create erosion or other unacceptable
environmental condition.
 WHAT IS HYDROLOGY?
• Branch of physical geography that deals with water of the earth. The
branch of hydrology that concern highway engineers are:

1. The frequency and intensity of precipitation.

2. The frequencies that this precipitation brings the highest run-off
which are equal or exceeded critical values.
3. The distribution of precipitation throughout the seasons that
influences water behavior affecting the highway surfaces.
4. The prediction regarding future rainfalls or run-off from gathered
statistical approaches, formula, or simulated methods based on the
laws of probability.
 RUN-OFF IS PREDICTED BASED
ON THE FOLLOWING METHODS
By the By the
By the Unit
Rational Empirical
Hydrograph
Methods Formula

By Statistical
By Simulation
Approach
 RELATIONSHIP AND EFFECT OF
HYDRAULIC AND CONSTRUCTION
Highway existing natural drainage pattern. Water passing the natural
right construction disrupt of ways is often intercepted by roadcuts.

Construction operations may disturb the ground cover, and

loosen the soil creating muddy streams as a result of erosion.

Erosions create debris that are carried downstream, and deposited at

points where the velocity slackens. Record shows that almost every
drainage installations disturbed the ecological balance of nature.

Any changes in the land use may alter the historical run-off or
un-gauge rural water shed that could be disastrous on wide
scale basis.
 CARDINAL RULES ON DRAINAGE DESIGN

1. As much as possible, any existing drainage system patterns and soil

cover should not be disturbed.
2. Necessary changes in the drainage patterns should not in any
manner bring velocities that may create new erosion problems.

• Non observance of these simple rules have created many serious

problems in the past, AND WORST, THE PEOPLE who PUT THEIR BLAME
on those who were NOT INVOLVE IN MAKING the highways very
unsightly.
 DRAINAGE ECONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS
• The term economy in drainage system, simply mean; finding the solution to a solution
that is cheapest in the long run under the following conditions:
1. Determine the estimated initial investment cost.
2. Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
3. Consider anticipated loss and damage for each solution.
• Annual appropriation for possible drainage or economic loss is equal to the
estimated losses from floods or various magnitudes, multiplied by the probability that
these floods will occur any time of the year.
• Drainage problem is varied, there is no single set of assumption or rule to economic
problem in drainage, considering the uncertainty of of flood frequency where the
design is based.
• For major highways, projections might proved that drainage facilities should
accommodate a 50 year flood.
 DRAINING THE HIGHWAY
• Rain water flows laterally or obliquely on the surface of the road
pavement under the influence of the cross section slope or super
elevation in the pavement and shoulders.
1. Water flowing across the roadway down the road slope must be thin
enough in a sheet form like so the erosion on the shoulder will be
minimized.
2. Unprotected slope could be badly washed out if irregularity in the
pavement or the shoulder accumulates water into small streams.
3. One way of preventing washout of the side slope is to retain the
water at the outlet edge of the shoulder.
4. A crowd ditch or intercepting channel may be employed at the top
of the cut slope. This will prevent the erosion of the cut slope by
surface run-off from the hillside above.
5. The surface should not be disturbed in any manner where the
natural ground is already covered with grass or other ground cover.
6. The channel or canal should be formed making the original ground
as its bed and a small dike of topsoil or imported materials to serve
as its bank.
7. Scouring must be controlled. If possible, the water flow must be
limited to a safer amount by diverting the flow at intervals. Water
should be dropped down to the roadside by ditch by means of
specially designed conduit or channels.
 DRAINING THE URBAN STREETS
1. On city streets, rain waters is guided by the road slope to the gutters and
along with them the curb and inlets designed to limit the spread of water
over the traffic lanes.
2. AASHTO recommended that for a grade material water should not
encroach on the outer lane by more than 1.80 meters for a 10 years flood.
A 50 years return period is proposed for depressed facilities.
3. The decision for water storm inlets and connections for gutters and
depressed median should be based on the same periods. Mani storm drain
for freeways has to accommodate 50 to 100 years storm.
4. For arterials, the return interval is 20 to 50 years. The water flow estimate
was based on the rational formula using the value of run-off coefficient
between 0.8 and 0.9 for pavements; 0.4 and 0.6 for gravel, and 0.1 and 0.7
for grass.
Rational
• Q = cIAd
Formula
• Quantity of run-off in cubic foot
Q
per second.
• Run-off coefficient expressing the
c ratio or rate of run-off to the rate
of rainfall.
• Intensity of rainfall in inches per
I hour for a duration equal to the
time of concentration.
Ad • Drainage area in hectares.
 MANHOLES, INLETS
AND CATCH BASIN
• Classified under item 502 of the DPWH standard specifications which
includes construction, reconstruction or adjustment of manhole, inlet
and catch basin.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
• Standard manhole inlets and catch basins be it new, or reconstructed
will be measured in unit. Any authorized additional concrete,
reinforcing bars, masonry or labor required, will be measured and paid
for under item 404 and 405. Junction box structure is measured for
payment as a manhole.

• The number of concrete covers, pairs of metal frames and gratings,

covers will be measured as acceptably completed. Likewise, the
number of existing manholes, inlets and catch basins will be measured
as acceptably completed.
 CHANNEL
• The purpose in designing a channel is to determine the cross section
of the canal that will accommodate water flow smoothly and
cheapest to construct and maintain.
1. Side slope with a ratio of 2:1 or even flatter is most acceptable,
except on rock or other hard materials where channels are lined. For
unlined or unfinished channel surface, the best cross section requires
the least total excavations.
2. The design of the crown ditches, gutters, stream channels and
culverts flowing partially or fully, are based on the principles of flow in
an open canal.
 THE CONDITION TO VARIOUS CHANNEL
PROBLEMS REST ON THE FOLLOWING
DISTINCTIONS

A. Water flowing down a mild slope in an open canal is Sub-critical

flow.

B. Water flowing on steep slope is in Super-critical flow.

Sub-critical Flow
• Exists when depth of water in channel is greater than
critical depth.
Super-critical Flow
• Exists when depth is less than critical level.

Critical Depth
• Occurs when velocity head is half the average depth.

Average Depth or Mean Depth

• Cross-sectional area of the flow divided by its width at
liquid surface.
1. The actual velocity must be checked against the maximum values
for unprotected earth.

2. Where channel scouring is indicated, reduction of water velocity

should be adopted to a safe level.

3. To reduce velocity is to reduce the flow of water by diversion.

4. Where is not possible, the channel is widened, or

lengthdiversionened. As an alternative, the slope of the channel is
decreased.

5. Baffles, checks or drops are introduced to reduce slope in the

channel.
 CULVERT
• With the exception of storm drain, culvert includes all closed conduits
with standard designs repeatedly used.
1. Culvert is loaded vertically by the wheel load of vehicles; the earth
fill covering the culvert; and the horizontal passive or active pressure.
The magnitude of these loads are uncertain as they are influenced
by:
a) Depth of the cover.
b) Nature and density of overlapping and adjacent soils.
c) Trench width and depth.
d) Deformation of the pipe under load.
e) Field construction procedures.
1. The stress calculation for pipe culverts are based on the assumptions
regarding the methods of under pipe support, soil support at itssides
and loading distribution over it.
3. Corrugated metal pipes are more flexible that could tolerate greater
deformations.
4. Highway engineers rarely make structural design for pipes and
culverts because of the difficulties and uncertainties involved.
5. For concrete, vitrified clay and cast iron pipe, what is specified is the
strength or class of pipe to be used in each condition.
6. It is now the practice of relying much on the reccommendations of
various manufacturers who prepare all the design data and
computations.
7. Highway agency has standard drawing of various culvert design
appropriate for the common heights and widths of openings, heights
of fill, including skew angles.
 INSTALLATION OF CULVERTS
• In order to safeguard the culvert and to prevent subsequent settlement in
the roadway surface, standard procedures for culvert installations are given
special attention particularly the bedding (footing) and backfilling.
1. Culverts are installed in the original bed of stream with their slope and flow
line conforming to the natural channel or canal.
2. In mountainous or rolling terrain, departure form channel alignment, either
upstream or downstream, may divert the current flow to one side of the
channel.
3. Culverts on skewed channels are relatively longer and costly. But channel
changes and erosion protections are provided with structures at one or
both ends to reduce the skews.
4. Inverted siphons should be avoided whenever the water carries sediments
of debris.
5. Stagnant water trapped inside the culvert sag is highly objectionable
that
must be avoided.
6. Most culvert start upstream with headwalls and terminate
downstream with endwall.
7. Hydraulically, headwalls and end walls functions separately but both
retain the embankment and protect it from washout.
8. In most cases, cut-off is extended to the level of expected scour.
9. The use of small pipe as end wall and sometimes headwall is being
discouraged because they are hydraulically inefficient as entrances.
10. The L type headwall create serious accident hazard, thus, gutter inlet
with grate cover is recommended.
11. A wing type wall is recommended for large culverts. The flared U and
warped walls are used on special applications.
• Under item 500 of DPWH standard specifications, the construction or
reconstruction of pipe culverts and storm drains are classified as conduits.
 CONDUITS
• Conduits are laid on bedding or footing that conform with the
following standard specifications:
1. Conduit budding is classified into class A, B and C.
2. In laying culvert pipes, the requirement of class C bedding is applied
if no bedding class is specified.
3. Class A bedding shall consist of a continuous concrete cradle
conforming with the plan details.
4. Class B bedding is extended to a depth not less than 30% of the
vertical outside diameter of the conduit pipe.
5. The minimum thickness of the bedding materials beneath the pipe is
10 centimeters composed of sand passing a 9.5 mm sieve but not
more than 10% passes 0.075 mm sieve.
6. The layer of bedding material is arranged and shaped to fit in the
conduit for at least 15% of its total height.
7. When a bell and spigot type is used, the recesses in the bottom
trench are shaped to accommodate the bell.
8. Class C bedding should be extended to a depth not less than 10% of
its total height.
9. For flexible pipes, the bed is roughly shaped and a bedding blanket
of sand is specified as follows:
Pipe Corrugation on Depth Minimum Bedding Depth

10mm 25mm

25mm 50mm

50mm 75mm
 LAYING THE CONDUIT PIPE
1. Installation of conduit pipes should start at the downstream end of
the conduit line.
2. The lower segment of the conduit pipe should be in contrast with the
shape throughout its full length.
3. The bell or groove ends of rigid conduits and outside circumferential
laps of flexible conduits are placed with longitudinal laps or seams at
side.
4. Paved or partially lined conduit pipes are laid with the longitudinal
centerline of the paved segment coincides with the flow line of
water.
5. Elliptical and elliptically reinforced conduits are placed with major
axis within 5 deg of vertical plan through the longitudinal axis of
conduit.
 JOINING THE CONDUIT PIPE
1. In joining conduit pipes, the ends are fully entered into the inner
surface evenly flushed. Joints are connected by:
a) Portland cement mortar or grout.
b) Rubber gaskets.
c) Oakum and mortar or joint compound.
d) Plastic sealing compound.
e) A combined of these types or any other as may be specified.
2. Joint mortar for concrete pipes consists of 1 part by volume of Port
land cement and 2 parts of approved sand with water nessecary to
obtain a refined consistency.
 BACKFILLING
• Backfilling follows after the laying of installation of conduit pipes under
the following:
1. Materials for backfill should be fine, readily compacted soil or
granular material selected from approved sources.
2. Backfill materials should be free from stones that would be retained
on 50 mm sieve, nor chunks of highly plastic clay and other
objectionable materials.
3. At least 95% of granular backfill material passes the 12.5 mm sieve
and not less than 95% of it are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve.
4. Oversized materials if present should be removed.
5. On top of trench, backfill materials ae placed at or near optimum
moisture content or compacted in layers not exceeding 15 cm.
6. For that portion above the trench on each side of the conduit pipe,
the width of the backfill is equal to twice the diameter of conduit or
3.5 meters whichever is smaller.
7. After being bedded and backfilled, all conduits are protected by
cover fill 1 meter high, before any heavy equipment is permitted to
cross during the construction of roadway.
 DESIGN OF UNDERDRAIN
• Underdrain is categorized under item 501 of DPWH standard
specifications, which provides that:
1. The pipe is used to carry away collected water.
2. Filter materials with which the trench is backfilled or the opening in
the filter, should be fine enough so that the adjacent soil will not be
washed-out in the drain.
3. The top of underdrain should be filled with impervious soil to prevent
the entrance of surface water.
4. Intercepting drains must extend into the impervious zone.
5. The pipes are laid with the flow line at least 1.2 meters below the
finished grade and carefully bedded with gravel or filled materials.
 GRANULAR BACKFILL FILTER
MATERIALS

• Granular backfill material shall be permeable meeting the

requirements of AASHTO M-6 specifications except that soundness
tests will not be required and minor variations in grading and content
of deleterious substances may be approved by engineer.
 UNDERDRAIN OUTLET
• Trench for underdrain outlets are excavated to the depth and width
as planned. Pipes are laid in the trench with all ends firmly joined and
backfilled after inspection and approval of the pipe installation.

BLIND DRAIN
• Trenches for blind drains are excavated to the width and depth as
shown on plans. The trench is filled with granular backfill material to
the required depth.
 DEBRIS CONTROL
• Flood waters usually carries objectionable objects like brushes,
banana trunks, tree branches, etc. these floating debris clog culvert
entrances and raise the headwater elevation overflowing the road
and damaging adjoining properties.
• Another alternative is to extend the curtain wall separating the barrels
of the multi span culverts upstream, with its top slanting downward so
that in time of flood debris carried by flood water will ride up on this
wall.
• Another method proven effective is to install up stream debris racks or
wire, steel rail or piling.
 THE LEGAL ASPECT
OF DRAINAGE
• Highway agency is legally responsible for any damage to private
property affected by the changes it makes in natural drainage
pattern within the limit the water must flow.
1. When as a result of the agency’s project, the flow of several streams
or creeks were concentrated into a single channel that resulted to
erosion, flooding of property.
2. When due to poor design or inadequate maintenance, water
backed against highway or embankment resulted to inundation of
land or property or caused injury or death.
3. Liability however, is limited to damages in direct consequences of
the improvement.
4. Engineering decisions if based on an accepted practice, do not
provide for a course of action. In any case, the responsibility of
highway agency would be determined through negotiations or
court litigations.
 ROADWAY DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION FOR UNUSUAL
SOIL CONDITIONS
Capillarity
Stability of fill
Drainage and frost
sand slope
heave

Elasticity and
Permafrost
rusting
 STABILITY OF FILLS AND SLOPE
1. Slides may happen during construction or at later date after the
road is in service.
2. If it is possible during the location surveys, areas that are threatened
by frequent slide, should be avoided.
3. Slides may be caused either by mudflows, slope adjustment, or
movement due to underground water or undercut rock strata.
4. Slides maybe controlled by removing large portion of the materials
above the slippage surface.
5. Water must always be intercepted before it lubricates the critical slip
surface.
 CAPILLARITY
• Tendency of water to seek its own level as if in an open channel flows
through the pores and fine channels of the soil.
1. In roadway construction, moisture has to be controlled.
Oversaturation of soil in road structure reduces its strength.
2. Moisture in the roadway is brought about by the changes in
weather, seasons or by capillary actions of water.
3. Water movement due to capillarity action take place in any
directions, and an upward movement may create undesirable
conditions.
4. Consistency of soil varies from semi solid to plastic liquid if moisture
content is increased.
5. Voids in soils are of the same order of magnitude as the particle size.
Thus, the height of capillary rise would be greater in fine grain soils
than in coarse grain soils.

ELASTICITY AND RUTTING

• Elasticity is common in soils whose fines consist of flat and flaky
particles. This kind of soil has rubberized characteristic that rebound
under heavy loads.
1. Highly plastic soils should not be placed closer to the roadway
surface where heavy loads are expected.
2. When heavy loads passes on a plastic soils, compression and
rebound occurs to at least 6 meters below the surface.
3. Deflection of the pavement surface as the wheel slowly rolls past the
reference point is measured by Bankelman beam.
 STABILIZING THE
UNSUPPORTED SLOPE
• An existing earth slope that have been stable can experience
significant movement called slope failure or landslide due to these
changes:

a) Changes in natural conditions

b) Changes induced by man

 CHANGES IN NATURAL
CONDITIONS
1. Occurrence of earthquake
2. Subsidence of underground cavern.
3. Erosion.
4. Slope weakening due to the development of cracks or shrinkage
cracks that are followed by water intrusions.
5. Variations in the elevation of ground water or changes in the slope
subsurface flow that create new seepage forces.
6. Weakening of buried soil or rock seams due to ground water flow or
chemical leaching.
 CHANGES INDUCED BY MAN
1. Increased loading on a slope or near its crest.

2. Removal of earth below the toe of a slope.

3. Removal of materials from slope making it steeper.

4. Topographic modification like earth moving, excavations, change in

elevation from one area to another which may create slope failure.

5. Landslide or other conditions caused by man.

 SLIDE

• Slide refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is defined and
separated from the underlying and adjacent earth by plane,
comprising a number of adjacent planes were seepage results.
Rotational slide
• Associated with natural slopes and constructed embankments of
materials possessing cohesion.

Translational slide
• Slope of layered materials where the mechanism of slippage occurs
along a weak plane that possesses a downward dip.

Block or wedge failure

• Displacement of an intact mass of soil due to the action of an
adjacent zone of earth.

Flows and spread

• Most complex of all types of soil mass movement.