 DRAINAGE AND SLOPE PROTECTION

 CHAPTER 6
 6-1 DRAINAGE
• Defined as the means of collecting, transporting, and disposing of surface water originating
in or near the right of way, or flowing in stream crossings or bordering the right of way.

• About 25% of roadway funds are spent for culverts, bridges, and other drainage structures.
• Bigger appropriations are allotted for ditches, dikes, channels and erosion control structures
or rural roads.
• Major capital investments are channeled to urban areas for storm drains and other
appurtenances plus the routine clearing of drainage facilities.
 Surface Draining
• One of the many problems to be considered in establishing the location and construction of
roads.
 6-2 Hydrology
• The frequency and intensity of precipitation.
• The frequencies that this precipitation brings the highest run-off which are equal or
exceeded critical values.
• The distribution of precipitation throughout the seasons that influences water behavior
affecting the highway surfaces.
• The prediction regarding future rainfalls or run-off from gathered statistical approaches,
formula, or simulated methods based on the laws of probability.

 Runoff is Predicted Based on the Following Methods:

 By the Rational Methods
 By the Empirical Formula
 By the Unit Hydrograph
 By Statistical Approach
 By Simulation
 Relationship and Effect of Hydraulic and Construction
• Usually, highway construction disrupt existing natural drainage pattern. Water passing
the natural right of ways is often intercepted by road cuts. The flow of several streams
are collected, to pass under the highway through a single channel, diverting streams to
canal or culverts that differ in sizes and length including the flow characteristics from the
previous one.
• Construction operations may disturb the ground cover, and loosen the soil creating
muddy stream as a result of erosion.
• Erosions create debris that are carried downstream, and deposited at points where the
velocity slackens. Record shows that almost every drainage installations disturbed the
ecological balance of nature.
• Any changes in the land use may alter the historical run-off or un-gauged rural water
shed that could be disastrous on wide scale basis.

 Cardinal Rules on Drainage Design

• As much as possible, any existing drainage system patterns and soil cover should not be
disturbed.
• Necessary changes in the drainage patterns should not in any manner bring velocities
that may create new erosion problems.
 6-3 Drainage Economic Considerations
 The term economy in drainage system, simply mean: finding the solution to a problem that
is cheapest in the long run under the following conditions:

• Determine the estimated initial investment cost.

• Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
• Consider anticipated loss and damage for each solution.
Under the foregoing considerations, annual appropriation for possible drainage or economic
loss is equal to the estimated losses from floods of various magnitudes, multiplied by the
probability that these floods will occur any tirne of the year.
For instance, if the drainage loss from any flood exceeding the design flow is P200,000
and according to hydraulic computations such floods will occur once in every 5 ysars, then the
annual loss of flood damage is P200,000 divided by 5 years or P40,000 per year.
Drainage problem is varied" and there is no single set of assumption or rule to economic
problem in drainage, considering the uncertainty of flood frequency where the design is based.
 6-3 Drainage Economic Consideration
To major highways with large volume of traffic, losses to motorists and to the economy, is
tremendously high, if the road will be closed frequently, due to flood and washout.
For major highways, projections might proved that drainage facilities should
accommodate a 50 year flood whereas, the design based on a 5 year flood is reasonable for a
low volume rural roads.
Where drainage problem of any magnitude has allernative solution, economic studies
based on reasonable estimated costs and possible damages, represent the best approach. Flood
frequencies and some of the costs, must be thoroughly approximated and let catastrophic
occurrences pervert our perspective on cost risks

 6-4 Draining the Highway

 Rain water flows laterally or obliquely on the surface of the road pavement under tlre
influenc€ of the cross section slope or super elevation in the pavement and shoulders. If the
water flow is controlled, then, the shoulder is in danger of erosion. However, t'he shoulder
will have minimal erosion damage if it is already covered or protected by turf or grass.
 1. Water flowng across tlre roadway down the road slope must be thin enough in a sheet
form like so that the erosion on tlre shoulder will be minimized.
 2. Unprotected slope could be badly washed out if irregularity in the pavernerfi or shoulder
accumulates water into small streams. Another point of water accumulation that endangers
the shoulder is the low portion of sagged vertical curves.
 3. One way of preve,nting washout of the side slope is to retain the water at the outer edge
of the shoulder.

 4.A crown ditch or intercepting channel mav be employed at the top of the cut slope. This
will prevent erosion of the cut slope by surface runoff from the hillside above.
 5. The surface should not be disturbed in any manner where the natural ground is already
covered with grass or otherground cover.
 6. The channel or canal should be formed making the original ground as its bed and a small
dike of topsoil or imported materials to serve as its bank.
 7. Scouring must be controlled. If possible, the water flow must be limited to a safer
amount by diverting the flow at intervals. Water should be dropped down to the roadside
ditch by means of specially designed conduit or channels.
 6-4 Draining the Highway
 Draining the Urban Street
 1. On city streets, rain waters is guided by the road slope to the gutters and along wrth them
the curb and inlets designed to limit the spread of water over the traffic lanes.
 2. AASFITO recommended that for a grade materials water should not encroach on the
outer lane by more than 1.80 meters for a l0 years flood. A 50 years return penod is
proposed for depressed facilities.
 3. The decision for water storm inlets and connections for gutters and depressed median
should be based on the same periods. Main storm drain for freeways has to accommodate
50 to 100 years storm.
 4. For arterials, the return interval is 20 to 50 years. The water flow estimate was based on
the Rational Formula using the value of runoff coefhcient between 0 8 and 0.9 for
pavements; 0.4 and 0.6 for gravel, and 0.1 and 0.7 for grass.
 Rational Formula: Q = clAd
 Where:
 Q : Quantlty of runoff in cubic foot per second
 c = Runoffcoefficient expressing the ratio or rate of runoffto the rate of rainfall
 I = lntensity of rainfatl in inches per hour for aduration equal to the time of concentration'
 Ad = Drainage arca in hectares.
 On Freeways and urban strests, the inlets for gutters and median should pass the designed
flood without clogging with debris .
 6-5 Manhole, Inlets and Catch Basin
 Manhole, inlets and catch basins are classified under Itent 502 of the DPWH
standard specifications which includes construction,reconstruction or adjustrnent of
manholes inlsts and catch basin.
 Material Requirements:
 l. Comrgated Metal Units' Whsn bituminous coating is specifiled, it shall conform to
ASTM D-1187, Asphalt Base Emulsion as protective coating for metal.
 2. Sewer and manhole made of bricks from clay or shalemust conform to AASIITO M-91
standard specifications. Building bricks of solid masonry units made from clay or shale
must conform to AASHTO M-l14.
 3. Joint mortar mixture should be one part Portland cement and two parts fine aggregate
(gravel) plus hydrated lime equal
 to 10% of the cement by weight.
 4. Frames, gratings, covers and ladder rungs, should be assembled before shipment and
may be re-assembled readily'in the same position when installed. lnaccuracy ofbearings
must be corrected by machine.The frame, gating or cover to be used must constitute one
pair.
 6-5 Manhole, Inlets and Catch Basin
All casting should be uniformly coated wittr asphalt base emulsion meeting the requirements sf
ASTM D-1187.
Stuctural concrete for the purpose must attain a minimum 28 days compreSsive stength to 20.68
Mpa (3000 psi). precast unit must be cured and the water absorption of individual cores must not
exceed 7 percent.
Sufficient number of cylinders shall be cast from the concrete for each unit that will permit
compression tests for 7. 14, and 28 days. And to allow at least 3 cylinders for each tests. If the
strength requirement is met at 7 or 14 day, the units will be certified for use at 14 days from the
date of casting. If the strength is not met at 28 days, atl units made from that batch will be
rejected. Cracks in units, honeycombed or patched areas in excess of 2,000 squ:lre millimeters,
excessive water absorption and failure to meet strength requirements will be rejected.

Construction Requirements
l. Concrete conskuction must conform to the requiremeirtsfor ltsm 4O5-Stuctureal Concrete.
Metal frames shouldbe set in full moitar bed and pipe sections flushed on the inside of the
structure wall projected outside sufficiently for proper connection with the next pipe section.
2. Masonry shall fit neatly and tightly around the pipe
3. When grade adjusftnent or existingstructure is specified,the frames, covers and gratings are
removed and then reset to the specified elevation.
4. Upon completion, each structure should be cleaned of any accumulation of silts, debris, or
foreign matters of any kind until final acceptance of the work.

Methods of Measurement
Standard manhole inlets and catch basins be it new, or reconstructed will be measured in unit.
Any authorized additional concrete, reinforcing bars, masonry or labor required, will be
measured and paid for under Item 404 and 405. Junction Box structure is measured for paynent
as a manhole.The number of concrete covers, pairs of metal frames and gratings, pairs of metal
frames and covers, will be rneasurecl as acceptably completed. Likewise, the number of existing
manholes, inlets and catch basins will be nreasured as acccptably completed.

 6-6 Channel
 The purpose in designing a charxrel is to determine the cross section of the canal that will
accommodate water flow smoothly and cheapest to construct and maintain.
 1. Side slope with a ratio of 2:l or even flatter is most acceptable, except on rock or other
hard materials where channels are lined. For unlined or unfinished channel surface, the best
cross section requires the least total excavations.
 2. The design of crown ditches, gutters, stream channels, and culverts flowing partially or
fully, are based on the principles of flow in an open canal. For uniform flow, the
relationship is expressed in the Manning Formula:

 where:
 Q = Quantitv of discharge in meter per second
 R=Hydraulic radius in meter. This is the area of the flow across section divided by the
wetted perimeter.
 A= Area of the flow cross section in square meter.
 S= Slope ofthe channel.
 N= Manning roughness coefficient (see table 6-2)

 6-6 Channel
 The condition to various channel problems rest on the following distinctions:
 a) Water flowrng down a mild slope in an open canal is in Sub-critical flow.
 b) Water flowing on steep slope is in Super critical flow.
 Sub-critical flow exists when the depth of water in the channel is greater than the critical
depth.
 Super-critical flow exists when the depth is less than the critical level.
 The Critical depth occurs when the velocity head is one half the average depth.
 The Average depth or Mean depth is the cross sectional area of the flow divided by its
width at the liquid surface.
 Unless the possibility of erosion is eliminated within a reasonable lirnit, channel design is
considered not a completq unit.
 1. The actual velocity must be checked against the maximum values for unprotected earth.
 2. Where channel scouring is indicated, reduction of water velocity should be adopted to a
safe level.
 3. To'reduce the velocity is to reduce the flow of water by diversion.
 4. Where diversion is not possible, the channel is widened, or lengthened. As an alternative,
the slope of the channel is decreased.
 5. Baffles, checks or drops are introduced to reduce slope in the channel.

• Culvert is loaded vertically by the wheel load of vehicles; the earth fill covering the
culvert; and the horizontal passive or active earth pressure. The magnitude of these loads
are uncertain as they are influenced by:
• Depth of the cover.
• Nature and density of the overlapping and adjacent soils.
• Trench width and depth.
• Deformation of the pipe under load.
• Field construction procedures.

 2. The stress calculation for pipe culverts are based on the assumptions regarding the
methods under pipe support, soil support at its sides and loading distribution over it.
 3. Corrugated metal pipes are more flexible that could tolerate greater deformations. The
sides of the corrugated metal pipe deform laterally against the adjacent backfill under
vertical load and the horizontal earth pressure increases the load carrying ability of the
pipe.
 Highway engineers rarely make structural design for pipes and culvert because of the
difficulties and uncertainties involved. Instead, they used past experience records as guide
then develop standard plans to fit all normal situations.
 For concrete, vitrified clay and cast iron pipe, what is specified is the strength or class of
pipe to be used in each condition. For corrugated metal pipe, highway engineers prescribe
plate thickness for the different pipe size and the heights of fill.
6. It is now the practice of relying much on the recommendations of various manufacturers who
prepared all the design data and computations etc.
7. Highway agency has standard drawing of various culvert design appropriate for the more
common heights and widths of openings, heights of fill, including skew angles.

 Installation of Culverts
• Culverts are installed in the original bed of stream with their slope and flow line
conforming to the natural channel or canal. The stream flow should not be disturbed to
minimize the tendency of erosion.
• ln mountainous or rolling terrain, departure from channel alignment, either upstream or
downstream, may divert the current flow to one side of the channel. This is dangerous to
create erosion and deposition on the opposite side.
• Culverts on skewed channel are relatively longer and costly. But channel changes and
erosion protections are provided with structures at one or both ends to reduce the skews.
• Inverted siphons should be avoided whenever the water carries sediments of debris.
• Stagnant water trapped inside the culverts sag is highly objectionable that must be
avoided.
• Most culverts start upstream with headwalls and terminate downstream with end wall.
The headwalls direct the flow into the culvert proper, while the end walls provide
transition from the culvert back to the regular channel.
• Hydraulically, the headwalls and end walls functions separately but both retain the
embankment and protect it from washout.

• In most cases, cut-off wall is extended to the level of expected scour. Sometimes a paved
apron or energy dissipater is extended beyond the cut off-wall.
• The use of small pipe as end wall and sometimes head wall is being discouraged because
they are hydraulically inefficient as entrances. Instead, the pipe is extended be yond the
toe of the embankment.
• The L type headwall create serious accident hazard, thus, gutter inlet with grate cover is
recommended.
• A wing type wall is recommended for large culverts. The flared U and warped walls are
used on special applications.

 Under Item 500 of the DPWH standard specifications, the construction or reconstruction of
pipe culverts and storm drains are classified as Conduits.
 Conduits
Conduits are laid on bedding or footing that conform with the following standard specifications
• Conduit Bedding is classified into Class A, B and C.
• In laying culvert pipes, the requirement of class C bedding is applied if no bedding class
is specified.
• Class A bedding shall consist of a continuous concrete cradle conforming with the plan
details.
• Class B bedding is extended to a depth not less than 30% of the vertical outside diameter
of the conduit pipe.
• The minimum thickness of the bedding materials beneath the pipe is 10 centimeters
composed of sand passing a 9.5 mm sieve but not more than l07o passes 0.075 mm
sieve.

• The layer of bedding material is arranged and shaped to fit in the conduit for at least 15%
of its total height.
• When a bell and spigot type is used, the recesses in the bottom trench are shaped to
accommodate the bell.
• Class C bedding should be extended to a depth not less than 10% of its total height.
• For flexible pipes, the bed is roughly shaped and a bedding blanket of sand is specified
as follows:

For a large diameter structural plate pipes, the shaped bed need not exceed the width of the
bottom plate.
 Laying the Conduit Pipe
• Installation of conduit pipes should start at the downstream end of the conduit line.
• The lower segment of the conduit pipe should be in contrast with the shape throughout
its full length.

 Laying the Conduit Pipe

• The bell or groove ends of rigid conduits and outside circumferential laps of flexible
conduits are placed with longitudinal laps or seams at the side.
• Paved or partially lined conduit pipes are laid with the longitudinal centerline of the
paved segment coincides with the flow line of water.
• Elliptical and elliptically reinforced conduits are placed with the major axis within 5
degrees of a vertical plan through the longitudinal axis of the conduit.

 Backfilling
Backfilling follows after the laying installation of conduit pipes under the following
specifications:
• Materials for backfill should be fine, readily compacted soil or granular material selected
from approved sources. It should be placed on each side of the conduit for the full trench
width up to elevation of 30 cm. above the top of the pipe.
• Backfill materials should be free from stones that would be retained on 50 mm sieve, nor
chunks of highly plastic clay and other objectionable materials.
• For that portion above the trench on each side of the conduit pipe, the width of backfill is
equal to twice the diameter of the conduit or 3.50 meters whichever is smaller.
• After being bedded and backfilled, all conduits are protected by cover fill 1.00 meter
high, before any heavy equipment is permitted to cross during the construction of the
roadway“

 Field Strutting
Whenever required by the plan and specifications, vertical diameter of rounded flexible conduits
is increased by 5 percent through shop elongation or by means of jacks applied after the entire
line of conduit installed on the bedding but before back filling. The vertical elongation should be
maintained by means of sills and struts, or by horizontal ties used on paved invert pipe.
Pipes and struts should be 30 centimeters in place until the embankment is completed and
compacted.
 6-8 Design of Underdrain
Underdrain is categorized under Item 501 of DPWH Standard Specifications, which provides
that:
"This item shall consist of constructing underdrain, using pipes and granular filter material
underdrain pipe outlets and blind drains using granular material in accordance with the
specifications and in reasonably close conformity with the lines and grades shown on the plans
or as established by the engineer.“

 Design of Underdrain
• The pipe is used to carry away collected water. The size and number of pipes and its
locations of opening should be studied carefully to prevent excessive entrance velocity
that will cause silting to the pipe.
• Filter materials with which the trench is backfilled or the opening in the filter, should be
fine enough so that the adjacent soil will not be washed-out into the drain.
• The top of underdrain should be sealed with impervious soil to prevent the entrance of
surface water.
• Intercepting drains must extend into the impervious zone.
• The pipes are laid with the flow line at least 1.20 meters below the finished grade and
carefully bedded with gravel or filter materials
 Materials
Materials should conform with the requirements specified as follows:
Granular Backfill Filter Materials
Granular backfill filter materials shall be permeable meeting the requirements of
AASHIO M-6 specifications except that soundness tests will not be required and minor
variations in grading and content of deleterious substances may be approved by the engineer. All
materials are subject to inspection before acceptance.
 6-9 Debris Control
Flood waters usually carries objectionable objects like brushes, banana trunks, tree
branches etc. These floating debris clogs culvert entrances and raise the headwater elevation
over flowing the road and damaging adjoining properties. Culverts should be designed to allow
debris to pass a single large span box culvert is preferred on streams carrying large floating
objects than the multi-span culvert with the same area of openings.
Another alternative is to extend the curtain wall separating the barrels of the multi span
culverts upstream, with its top slanting downward so that in time of flood, debris carried by
flood water will ride up on this wall or turn to pass easily through the opening.
Another method proven effective is to install up stream debris racks or wire, steel rail or
piling. Some design provides trap for the sand or gravel carried by the stream rather than having
it pass through the structure. However, design of debris control devices depends upon the kind
of debris to be handled, the volume of floodwater and the site conditions.

 6-10 The Legal Aspect of Drainage

Damage claim against the Department could be established if:
• Wren as a result of the agency's project, the flow of several streams or creeks were
concentrated into a single channel that resulted to erosion, silting or flooding of private
property.
• When due to poor design or inadequate maintenance, water backed against highway or
embankment resulted to inundation of land or property or caused injury or death.
• Liability however, is limited to damages in direct consequences of the improvement. The
agency would not be liable for damages if an unprecedented storm causes the stream to
overflow a newly constructed channel, provided that this channel has the capacity equal
to the natural volume of water flow.
• Engineering decisions if based on an accepted practice, do not provide for a course of
action. In any case, the responsibility of the highway agency would be determined
through negotiations or court litigations. Therefore, design of drainage system must
satisfy the various requirements of the environmental laws and regulations.

 6-ll Roadway Design and Construction for Unusual Soil Conditions

Problems usually encountered in the design and constructions of roadways are:
• The stability of fill sand slope
• The drainage
• Capillarity and frost heave
• Permafrost
• Elasticity and rutting

 Stability of Fills and Slope

There are instances where the materials in cut bank slips down the roadway, or
sometimes, a portion of high fill slides outward carrying portion of the roadway. This pattern of
failure is common in fills or cut slope of homogenous non-granular materials.

Capillarity
Capillarity is the tendency of water to seek its own level as if in an open channel flows
through the pores a:rd fine channels of the soil. It is the force pulling free water through the
voids of the soil in all directions.
 6-12 Stabilizing the Unsupported Slope
An existing earth slope that have been stable can experience significant movement called slope
failure or landslide due to the following physical changes :
• Changes in natural conditions
• Changes induced by man
Changes in natural conditions may be the result from:
• Occurrence of earthquake.
• Subsidence of underground cavern.
• Erosion.
• Slope weakening due to the development of cracks or shrinkage cracks that are followed
by water intrusions.
• Variations in the elevation of ground water or changes in the slope subsurface flow that
create new seepage forces.
• Weakening of buried soil or rock seams due to ground water flow or chemical leaching.
Changes Induced by Man
• Increased loading on a slope or near its crest.
• Removal of earth below the toe of a slope.
• Removal of materials from slope making it steeper.
• Topographic modification like earth moving, excavations, change in elevation from one
area to another which may create slope failure.
• Landslide or other conditions caused by man

Slide
Slide refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is defined and separated from the
underlying and adjacent earth by plane, comprising a number of adjacent planes were seepage
result. The seepage plane represent the continuous surface where the maximum shear strength of
the earth material has been reached with the result that large displacement occurs.

Slide is classified into four:

• Rotational slide.
• Translational slide.
• Block or wedge failure.
• Flows and spread.

Rotational Slide is associated with natural slopes and con structed embankment of
homogeneous materials possessing cohesion.
Translational slide is associated with slope of layered materials where the mechanism of
slippage occurs along a weak plane that possesses a downward dip and in cohesionless soil
slopes where seepage occurs.
Block or Wedge failure refers to the displacement of an intact mass of soil due to the
action of an adjacent zone of earth
Flows and Spread failure is the most complex type of soil mass movement. Flow involves
lateral movement of soil having a characteristic of viscous fluid, although the actual consistency
of the moving mass may vary from very wet to dry.
Spread refers to the occurrence of multi-directional lateral movement by a fractured soil
mass. Earthquake is a typical causes of lateral spreads.
 6-13 Improving the Stability of Slope
Procedures adopted in the past which have been successful in stabilizing slopes are enumerated
as follows:
• Corrective and preventive measures of reducing a mass or loading have successfully
prevented further slides.
• Improving the shear strength of the earth in the failure zone by constructing structural
elements that will provide resistance to movement.
• Consider the characteristics of the soil in the slope like:
a. The thickness and depth of the materials involved in sliding.
b. The ground water conditions.
c. The spaces available to undertake corrective changes.
e. The topographical conditions at the vicinity of the slope and the tendency for changes
such as the advert of the seismic and vibratory loadings to occur.
• Where area is available, flattening of the slop can be done to reduce the weight of the
mass that tends to slide.
• If base failure is anticipated, placement of beam below the toe of the slope will increase
movement resistance.
• If the zone below the toe is susceptible to severe erosion, protective rock fill blanket and
riprap can be installed at the toe area.
• To prevent infiltration, erosion and to reduce seepage force, the stone subsurface water
and intercept surface water should be lowered.
• If the soil is cohesionless, the shear strength of the slope material can be improved
through densification by using explosives or vibroflotation or terra probe procedures.
• For cohesive soils, shear strength could be improved by consolidation and water content
reduction through sur charging which may include wick drains, electro osmosis and
thermal drying.
• Where the weak condition is critical to the stability of the slope, grouting and injection
methods could be utilized to add cementing and bonding agent.
• Pile Driving, sheet piling or retaining walls are utilized to provide lateral support and
increase resistance of slope tending to stocks.
• Improvement and protective methods such as slope flattening and drainage control are
preferred for economical reasons.
 6-14 Retaining Wall
The practical use of gravity retaining wall is controlled by height limitations. Thus, the
required wall cross section increases significantly with tall heights due to the effect of the
triangular soil pressure distributed behind the retaining wall.
If the ground water level rises into the backfill behind a retaining wall because of either
changing ground water condition or percolating water surface, the lateral pressure against the
wall is also changed.
Settlement and distortion of a retaining wall due to com pression of the foundation soil
must be limited to a tolerable value. The combined effect of soil and water pressure on the
retaining wall causes over turning moments and sliding forces greater than the condition where
there is no water.
To avoid the rise of water building up behind the retaining wall, a weep hole or collector
drainage system or both are pro vided as part of the design construction. Weep holes should be
at least 3 inches diameter provided with granular soil filter fabric at the wall to prevent backfill
erosion. The horizontal spacing of weep holes ranges from 1.20 to 3.00 meters.
For taller walls, two or more rows of weep holes may be provided with typical vertical
spacing at l.50 meters.
A good retaining wall design must conform to the following requirements:
• The base and stem of the retaining wall must be capable of resisting the internal shear
and bending moments developing as a result of soil and other loading.
• The wall must be safe against overturning.
• The wall structure must be safe against sliding.
• The bearing capacity of the foundation material supporting the wall must not be
exceeded.
Item 504 Rip Rap and Grouted Rip Rap
Class of Stone for Riprapping
 Class A - Stone ranging from 15 to 25 kg. with at least 50 % of the stones weighing more
than 20 kilograms.
 Class B - Stone ranging from 30 to 70 kg. with at least 50% of the stones weighing more
than 50 kilograms.
 Class C - Stones ranging from 60 to 10Q kg. with at least 50% of the stones weighing more
than 80 kilograms.
 Class D - Stones weighing from 100 kg. to 200 kg. with at least 50% of the stones
weighing more than 150 kg.
Excavation and Placing
The bed for riprap is excavated down the required depth properly compacted, trimmed
and shaped. The riprap foundation is dug below the depth of scour. The toe trench is filled with
stone of the same class as specified.

Stones placed below the water line are distributed properly and those above the water
level are placed by hand or individually laid by machine with close broken joints firmly bedded
into the slope against the adjoining stones.
Each stone is laid with its longest axis perpendicular to the slope in close contact with
adjacent stone. The riprap is thoroughly rammed into place and the finished stone are laid to an
even tight surface. Intersections between stones are filled with small broken fragments firmly
rammed into place.
Grouting
When grouted riprap is specified, stones are placed by hand or individually laid by machine.
Spaces between stones are then filled with cement mortar sufficient enough to completely fill all
the voids except the face surface of the stones left exposed.
Cement grout is placed starting from the bottom to the top of the surface and then swept
with stiff broom. After grouting, the surface is cured like structural concrete for a period of at
least 3 days after the installation.
Masonry stone is categorized under Item 505 of the DPWH standard specifications. This
item consists of stone masonry in minor structures, in headwalls for culverts and retaining walls
at the toes of the slope.

Material Requirements
• The stone should be clean, hard and durable. Adobe stone shall not be used unless
specified.
• When the wall thickness is 45 cm. or less, the header should extend entirely from the
front to the back face.
• Backings are built chiefly of large stones. The individual stones of backing and hearting
are well bonded with the face wall and with each other.
• All openings and interstices in the backing are filled completely with cement mortar or
with spall surrounded completely with mortar.

Pointing and Coping

Cement mortar for joints on top of masonry surface are crowned slightly at the center to
provide drainage. If coping is required, it should be indicated in the plan.
Where coping is not required, the top of the wall is finished with stone wide enough to
cover the top of the wall from 45 cm. to 100 cm. in length and of random heights of 15 cm.
Stone is laid where the top course is an integral part of the wall. The tops of the top course stone
are pitched to line in both vertical and horizontal plane.

Weeping Holes
All walls and abutments should be provided with weep holes placed at the lowest point
where free outlets for water can be obtained and spaced not more thart2 meters center distance.
Cleaning and Curing
Immediately after laying and while the mortar is still fresh, all face stones should be
thoroughly cleaned of mortar stains and should be kept clean until the work is completed. If
weather is hot or dry, the masonry should be protected from the sun and kept wet for a period of
at least 3 days after the completion.

Item 506 Hand Laid Rock Embankment

Material Requirements
Stones for hand laid rock embankment must be sound and durable furnished in a well
balance range of sizes meeting the requirements as follows:
• All stones should be more than 0.015 cubic meter in volume and not less than 75 percent
of the total volume should consist of stones at 0.03 cubic meters in volume. Stones
obtained from excavation performed under the contract may be used.

• Adobe stone should not be used unless otherwise specified in the plan.

Construction Requirements
• Excavation shall be sufficient enough to expose the foundation bed. Stones are laid flat
securely placed with their broken joint lined.
• The larger stone should be generally located in the lower portion of the structure and
voids eliminated to possible extent.
• Spall smaller than the minimum stone size are used to check the larger stones solidly in
position to fill voids be tween the major stones laid in the embankment.
• The exposed face of the rock mass should be uniform without projections of more than
15 cm. beyond the neat lines indicated on plans.
• Backfill adjacent to the hand laid rock embankment should be filled entirely with
acceptable materials coming from the excavation items and compacted.
Item 5-7 Sheet Piles
Material Requirements
• Timber sheet pile may consist of any species that will satisfactorily stand driving It is
sawn or hewn with square corners free from worn holes, loose knots, wind shakes, decay
or unsound portions or other defects that might impair its strength or tightness.
• Concrete Sheet Piles. Concrete reinforcement and manufacture of concrete sheet piles
should conform to the requirements of Item 400 - Piling.
• Steel Sheet Piles should of the type, weight and section modulus indicated on the plans
or special provisions and conform to the requirements of item 400- piling.

Item 509 Gabion

 6-15 Highway Bridges

Highway bridges are of two types:
• Those that carry vehicular traffic and pedestrians over a large stream.
• Those that separate traffic movements as interchanges and street pedestrians over or
under crossings.
Hydraulic Problems:
• There must be available stream record that provides the usual method of estimating
water discharges under the bridge.
• Analysis of the channel relationship as to:
• Peak flow
• Water way opening
• Water surface elevation at the structure and upstream and flow velocity.

• The degree of contraction of the flowing water in the channel approach.

• Final structure proportions and required channel modifications based on the studies.
• Effect of bridge opening and approaches that might cause flood to adjacent properties.
This is associated with hydraulic aspects of bridge design.
• Economic, legal and social implications where cooperative planning with all affected
groups and agencies is necessary.
• Where the bridge is to rest on eroding streambed scouring is the primary concern. The
problem of the designer is, if the design is over safe, it is over design, meaning, the
foundation becomes very costly. But if scouring is under estimated, the foundation might
be undermined which might result to total destruction of the entire bridge.
• Recent findings showed that the latest scours is when the pier has less resistance to flow.
Meaning, that the piers are aligned with the flow with the smallest cross section that is
best where scouring is a problem. Test results further showed that, scouring increases
with depth of flow and becomes a problem in streams with high ratio between flood and
normal flow.
Highway Bridges, Designed to Resist Loads Brought by:
• The weight of the structure itself called dead load.
• The weight and dynamic effect of moving load called "Live Load“
• The centrifugal forces developed by moving vehicles on curved structure.
• The wind load and the stresses brought about by:
• Temperature change
• Earth
• Shrinkage
• Buoyancy
• Rib shortening
• Erection
• Current pressure
• Earthquake

Bridge Types
A bridge consists of substructure of abutments and piers that supports superstructure that
carry the roadway between sup ports. Bridge type includes: slab, girder, truss, arch and cable
stayed. Each suspension bridge has a distinctive form of structure, the selection of the kind of
bridge to be installed depends on the length of individual span as follows:
• Short span up to 18 meters which either:
• Reinforced concrete rigid frame with slab deck.
• T-Beam or box girders reinforced concrete.
• Steel plate girders with reinforced concrete deck.
• Span that exceeds 90 meters long steel trusses, arches of steel or reinforced concrete.
• Span that exceed 150 meters are generally made of steel trusses, cable-stayed or
suspension bridge.
For designing purposes, AASHTO has adopted standard vehicles as representative loadings :